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JL    s-^    ^>     ^w> 


COMMOI  SCHOOL  GRAMMAR 


AH  mTBOBUOIIOlI  TO  TEE 


ANALYTICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR. 


WITH 


PBAOTIOIL  LESSONS  AND  EXERCISES  IN  COMPOSITION. 


BY 

REV.  PETER  BULLIONS,  D.D., 

or  THB  gSEIES  OF  SNOLtSH,   LATIN,  AND  OBEEK  OBAJUCABS , 
LATUI  AND  GB^EK:;  laiA&EB^  KXa  '•  T 


pHIVBRSITY 


NEW  YORK: 

SHELDON    &  COMPANY,   PUBLISHERS 
677    BROADWAY. 

18  71. 


? 


0 


^^■^^^ 


i-.tFiiKP  according  to  -Act  of  i  uTigross,  in  the  year 
PETER  BULLIONS,   D.D. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the 
Northern  District  of  New  York. 

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PREFACE 


This  book  has  been  carefully  revised,  in  order  to  have  it  serve  more 
completely  as  a  school-book  for  those  pupils  who  have  not  time 
allowed,  in  their  school  studies,  for  a  profitable  use  of  all  contained  in 
a  treatise  such  as  the  author's  "  Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar  of 
the  English  Language."  To  pupils  who  may  be  favored  with  time  for 
a  more  extended  course  of  instruction,  and  who  may  require  the 
larger  book  in  higher  classes,  this  little  book  will  be  serviceable  ;  aa 
in  both  books  the  Definitions  and  Rules  are  substantially  the  same 
throughout,  and  are  presented  in  the  same  order. 

Each  "  Lesson"  of  this  book  presents  one  topic  for  study,  by  such  a 
method  as  will  secure  an  intelligible  comprehension  and  a  practical 
application  of  the  principles  of  Grammar  contained  in  the  lesson. 
(See  Lesson  10,  page  22.)  After  the  large  type,  which  presents  the 
subject  in  concise  language,  is  an  "Illustration,"  which,  in  simple, 
familiar  language,  explains  the  full,  practical  meaning  of  the  definitions. 
The  "  Observations"  are  to  be  used  at  the  option  of  the  teacher. 
The  *'  Questions"  are  so  framed  as  to  bring  out  the  leading  facts  con- 
tained in  the  preceding  text.  Following  these  are  many  and  varied 
"  Exercises"  for  the  practical  application  of  the  knowledge  acquired, 
and  to  fix  it  in  the  most  effectual  manner  on  the  understanding.  Sub- 
Joined  is  the  requirement  that  the  pupils  are  to  construct  language  in 
accordance  with  the  principles,  &c.,  under  consideration,  and  thus 
show  to  tlie  teacher  their  uoderstanding  of  the  lesson.  By  this  last 
feature,  "  Composition"  soon  becomes  pleasing  and  profitable  to  pupils. 

A  simple  and  practicable  system  of  Analysis  of  Sentences,  which 
has  been  found  so  useful  in  the  Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar,  ia 
presented  in  this  book  in  its  proper  place.  After  a  pupil  has  studied 
Etymology,  he  will  easily  understand  this  "  Analysis,"  and  can  readily 
apply  its  principles  throughout  Syntax,  when  correcting  the  "  Exer- 
cises" on  the  Rules,  &c. 

The  lessons  on  "  Punctuation,"  "  Capitals,"  &c.,  have  been  enlarged. 

Some  Introductory  Exercises  have  been  inserted  as  preliminary  to 
to  the  more  formal  study  of  the  Etymology.  These  Exercises  will 
mterest  beginners  in  the  Tises  of  correct  language,  and  prepare  their 
minds  for  the  regular  **  Lessons."  Some  classes  may  be  profitably 
entertained  by  frequent  use  of  these  and  similar  exercises  from  the 
teacher. 


The  numbers  in  parentheses,  as  (196)  p.  22,  refer  to  the  cur- 
rent numbers  in  the  Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar,  where  the 
subject  is  more  fuUy  treated. 


Troy,  N.  T.,  Sept.  1867. 


CONTENTS. 


IA«I 

fntroductorv  Exercises, 3 

Definition  and  Division, 7 

PART   FIRST.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 
Concerning  Letters  and  Syllables, T 


PART  SECOND— ETYMOLOGY. 

Division  of  Words, .   8 

Of  Nouns 10 

Of  Person,  Gender,  Number,  Case, 11-19 

Of  tiie  Article, 20 

Of  the  Adjective,  Comparison  of, . . .    . '. 22-25 

Of  the  Pronoun,  Relative  Pronouns,  Adjective  Pronouns, 26-34 

Exercises  on  Xonus,  Articles,  Adjectives,  and  Pronouns, 35 

Of  Verbs,  Division  of,  Inflection  of, 36-42 

Of  the  Moods,  Tenses, 43-47 

Of  the  Participles,  Number  and  Person, 48-50 

Of  the  Conjuo:ation  of  Verbs, 51 

The  Verb  "To  Love," 57 

Negative  Form  of  the  Verb,  Interrogative  Form, 61-62 

Progressive  Form  of  ibe  Active  Voice, G'i 

Passive  Voice, G4 

Of  Irregular,  Defective,  and  Impersonal  Verbs, 68-73 

Of  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Interjections,  and  Conjunctions,.    , .  .74-80 

How  to  Distinguish  tlie  Parts  of  Speech,'. 81 

Parsing,  Model  of,  Exercises  in, 82-8fi 

PART  THIRD.— SYNTAX. 

Analysis  of  Sentences,  Definitions, 86 

Parts  of  a  Sentence, 87 

Classes  of  Stnlences, 88 

Single  ^^uutcnces, — Subject  of  a  Sentence, 89 

Subject,  xViodificatious  of, — Predicate,  Modifications  of, 90-93 

Limiting  Clauses, 94 

Compound  Sentences, 95 

Directions  lor  Analysis, — Models, 96,  97 

Construction  of  Sentences, — Parts  of  Syntax, 100 

Rules  of  Syntax, — General  Rule  of  Syntax, 101-129 

Ellipsis, '. 130 

Model  of  Syuiactical  Parsing,  Promiscuous  Exercises, 132,  133 

Punctualion,  Capitals," 134-137 

PART   FOURTH. — PROSODY. 

Prosody.     Elocution,  Versification,  Accent, 138,  139 

Composition, 14=0 


4 


3Siv  is  Jtibiiy 
INTRODUCTORY    EXERCISES. 


RELATION  OF  WORDS. 


Before  proceeding  to  the  regular  study  ol  the  Grammar, 
pupils  should  be  taught  the  v^e  of  words  in  their  relations  to 
each  other,  and  their  classification  into  Parts  of  Speech.  This 
may  be  done  by  such  exercises  as  the  following.  Answers  aro 
given  to  suggest  the  proper  method  to  be  used  in  giving  the 
pupil  a  full  understanding  of  the  subject ;  yet  he  should  not  pasa 
beyond  these  exercises  until  he  can  readily  answer  such  ques- 
tions from  any  sentence  which  may  be  written  on  the  black- 
board. 

"  A  fish  lives  in  water." 

Question.  Does  this  sentence  state  that  some  particular  fish  lives  7 
Answer.  No,  but  that  any  fish  lives. 

Q.  Where  does  it  state  that  a  fish  Uves  ?     Ans.  In  the  water. 
Q.  Does  it  mean  that  any  fish  lives  in  the  sea,  which  is  water  ? 
Ans.  No,  it  means  the  general  fact,  that  a  fish  fives  in  water. 
Q.  Why  would  it  not  be  correct  to  say  that  the  sentence  means 

a  fish  (any  fish)  Uves  in  the  sea,  which  is  water  ? 
Ans.  Because  the  sea  water  is  salt,  and  some  fishes  do  not  live 

in  salt  water. 

"  The  fish  lives  in  the  sea." 

Q.  In  this  sentence  why  is  the  word  "  the  "  properly  used,  in- 
stead of  "  a"  ? 

Ans.  Because  "  the  "  states  definitely  that  a  particular  fish  lives 
in  a  particular  place,  namely  the  sea. 

Q.  If  the  word  "  fish "  be  altered  to  "  fishes,"  what  would  the 
sentence  mean  ? 

Ans.  That  more  than  one  of  these  fishes  five  in  the  sea. 

Q.  Would  the  sentence  thus  altered  to  "  the  fishes  lives  in  the 
sea,"  be  correct? 

Ans.  No,  because  the  word  "fishes"  means  more  than  one,  and 
"  lives  "  can  be  used  only  where  one  fish  is  spoken  of. 

Q.  How  then  should  the  sentence  be  written,  and  why  ? 

Ans.  "  The  fishes  live  in  the  sea,"  because  '  live"  and  not  "  lives" 
must  be  used  when  more  than  one  is  spoken  of. 


ft  INTEODUCTORY   EXEECISES. 

Thus,  the  meaning  of  words  in  sentences  may  be  expkined, 
and  it  will  be  seen  that,  when  properly  arranged,  they  constitute 
correct  language^  by  which  the  thoughts,  wislies,  and  knowledge, 
of  the  speaker  or  writer  are  made  known  to  others. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 

Although  there  are  several  thousand  words  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, all  are  classified  grammatically  into  only  nine  different 
kinds,  called  Parts  of  Speech.  A  word  is  of  one  kind  or  an 
other,  according  to  its  use  in  a  sentence. 

Let  us  now  observe  the  uses  and  names  of  the  different  kinds 
of  words  in  the  following 

Sfc:NTENCE. — *'  The  boy  rolled  a  round  stone  upon  the  floor,  and 
oh  1  how  swiftly  it  did  go." 

Q.  Is  there  any  person  named  in  this  sentence  ?    Ans.  Yes.  a 

hoy. 
Q.  Is  there  any  jo^ce  named  ?     Ans.  Yes,  a  floor. 
Q.  Is  there  any  iM7ig  named  ?     Ans.  Yes,  a  stone. 
Q.  What,  then,  are  the  words  ''  boy,"  ''  floor,"  and  "  stone"  ? 
Ans.  They  are  names. 

In  Grammar,  names  are  called  Nouns  or  Substantives, 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  noun  f 

Ans.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing.  [Less.  4.] 
(Exercise  the  pupil  on  nouns  by  asking  him  to  write  a  number 
on  the  slate  or  blackboard  ;  also,  by  giving  him  sentences  in 
which  they  occur,  and  requiring  him  to  point  them  out.  For 
Exercises  see  page  11.  Do  the  same  with  the  other  Parts  of 
Speech,  as  they  are  defined.) 

Q.  Why  is  "  the"  put  before  "  boy"  ?    Ans.  To  point  out  some 

•    particular  boy. 
Q.  Why  is  "  a"  put  before  "  round  stone"  ?    Ans.  To  show  that 

no  particular  stone,  but  any  round  stone  is  referred  to. 
Q.  What  are  these  words  "  the"  and   "  a,"  and  what  do  they 

show  ?     A71S.  They  are  articles,  and  show  the  manner  in 

which  the  nouns  "  boy"  and  "  stone"  are  used. 
Q.  Wljat,  then,  is  an  article  P 
Ans.  An  article  is  a  word  put  before  a  noun  to  show  the  manner 

in  which  it  is  used.    [Lesson  9.]    For  Exercises  see  page  21. 
Q.  Why  is  tne  word  *'  round"  put  before  "  stone  ?"     Ans.  To  tell 

a  property  or  quality  of  it — to  distinguish  ittrom  other  stones 

that  are  square  or  rough,  &c. 
Words  of  .this  kind  are  named  AnjECTiVEa 


INTRODUCTOEY   EXERCISES.  5 

(/.  What,  then,  is  an  adjective  f  Ans.  An  adjective  is  a  word 
iised  to  qualify  a  noun  or  substantive.  [Lesson  10,  Exer 
cises,  p.  23.1 

Q.  What  does  this  part  of  the  sentence  mean,  "  it  did  go  swiftly"  ? 

Ans.  The  stone  did  go  swiftly. 
Q   How,  then,  is  the  word  "  it"  used  in  this  sentence? 
Ans.  It  is  used  instead  of  the  word  "  stone." 

Words  used  instead  of  nouns  are  named  Pronouns. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  pronoun  ?  Ans.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used 
instead  of  a  noun.     [Lesson  12.] 

Q.  What  did  the  boy  do  ?     Ans.  He  rolled  the  stone. 

Q.  What  becarne  of  the  stone  ?     Ans.  It  did  go  upon  the  floor. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  word  "rolled"  teU  us  of?     Ans.  The 

action  of  the  boy. 
Q.  What  does  "  did  go"  tell  us  of?     Ans.  The  state  of  the  stone 

after  the  boy  rolled  it. 

Words  of  this  kind,  such  as  "  rolled"  and  "  did  go"  are  named 

TERBS. 

The  subject  of  a  verb  is  that  of  which  the  verb  affirms  or  de- 
clares something.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  boy  "  is  the  subject 
of  the  verb  "rolled,"  and  "it"  (the  stone)  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "  did  go." 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  verh  ? 

Ans.  A  verb  is  a  ivord  or  words  used  to  express  the  act,  being,  or 
state  of  its  subject  ;  as,  I  write  ;  he  exists  ;  time  fiies.  [Ex- 
ercises, p.  38.] 

Q.  How  did  the  stone  go  ?     Ans.  It  did  go  swiftly. 

Q.  What  does  "  swiftly"  tell  us  ?     Ans.  The  manner  in  which 

the  stone  "  did  go." 
Q.  If  you  say  "  the  stone  did  go  very  swiftly,"  what  does  the 

word  "  very  "  do  ? 
Ans.  It  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  swiftly." 
Q.  What  would   "  very"  here  tell  us  ?     Ans.  A  circumstance 

about  the  motion  of  the  stone.     It  did  go  very  swiftly. 
Q.  If  you   were   to   say  "  a  very  round  stone,"  what  would 
very  "I  -     -     -  ~ 

''round." 
Words  of  this  b'nd,  such  as  '^  swiftly "  and  "  very"  are  named 

A-DVERBS. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  ar  adverb  ? 

Ans.  An  adverb  is  a  'vord  u^sed  to  modify  a  verb,  an  adiecUve,  Of 


I>  INTRODUCTORY   EXERCTSES. 

another  adverb^  or  to  denote  some  circumstance  respecting  it, 
[Lesson  31,  Exercises,  p.  76.] 

Q.  What  is  the  use  of  the  word  "upon"  in  the  sentence? 

Atis    It  shows  the  relation  between  tlie  ''  floor"  and  tlie  "  stone. ' 

Q.  If  you  add  to  the  sentence  so  that  the  latter  pait  will  reafl 

"  how  swiftly  it  did  go  under  the  table,"  what  relation  doea 

the  word  "  under"  show  ?     Ans.  The  relation  of  the  Dro- 

noun  "it"  (the  stone)  to  the  noun  "table." 

Words  of  this  kind  are  named  Prepositions. 
Q.  What,  tnen,  is  a  ])reposition  f 
Ans.  A  preposition  is  a  word  that  shows  the  relation  between  a 

noun  or  pronoun  and  some  other  word  in  the  sentence.     [Les 

son  32,  Exercises,  p.  78.] 

Q.  What  is  "oh!"  here?     Ans.   It  is  a  word  expressing  sur- 
prise at  seeing  the  stone  rolling. 
Such  words  are  called  Interjections. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  an  interjection?  An  Interjection  is  a  word 
Tised  in  exclamation  to  express  some  emotion  of  the  mind.— 
[Lesson  33,  Exercises,  p.  79.] 

Q.  This  sentence  has  two  parts  connected  by  onei  word.  Name 
the  parts.  Ans.  (1)  "  The  boy  rolled  a  round  stone  upon 
the  floor."     (2;  "  Oh!  how  swiftly  it  did  go!" 

Q.  What  word  joins  these  two  parts  of  the  sentence? 
Ans.  And. 

Words  that  join  words  and  sentences  are  called  Conjunctions. 

Q,  What,  then,  is  a  conjunction?  Ans.  A  conjunction  is  a  word 
which  connects  words^  phrases,  or  sentences.  [Lesson  34 
Exercises,  p.  80.] 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  words  are  there  in  this  sentence  ? 

Ans.  Nine. 
Q.  What  are  they  called  in  English  Grammar  ?    Ans.  Parts  of 

Speech. 

Q.  Can  all  the  words  in  our  language  be  classed  under  these 
nine  parts  of  speech  ?     Ans.  Yes. 

Q.  What  are  you  going  to  learn  by  studying  Grammar  ? 

Ans.  The  way  to  put  these  Parts  of  Speech  properly  to- 
gether, so  as  to  speak  and  write  the  English  l.«iiguf.g6  cor* 
rectly. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


liCl^SOn   1  • — Definition  and  Division, 

[Commit  Definitions  and  Rules  accurately  to  memory.] 

Language  is  the  means  by  which  we  express 
our  thoughts. 

When  we  express  our  thoughts  by  sounds,  it  is  called  Spoken  Lan- 
guage, When  we  express  them  by  characters  or  letters,  it  is  called 
Written  Language. 

English  Grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and 
writing  the  English  Language  with  propriety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts ;  namely,  Ortho- 
graphy, Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

Orthography  treats  of  letters  (Lesson  2)  ; 
Etymology  of  words  (Lesson  3) ;  Syntax  of 
sentences  (Lesson  39);  and  Prosody  of  elocution 
and  versification  (Lesson  79). 

QUESTIONS.— What  is  Language  ?  What  is  Spoken  Language  ? 
Written  ?  What  is  English  Grammar  ?  Into  how  many  parts  is  it 
divided?  Mention  th.em.  What  does  Orthography  treat  of?  Ety* 
mology  ?    Syntax  ?     Prosody  ? 


PAKT  FIKST.— OETHOGKAPHT. 

liCSSOn  2. — Letters  and  Syllables. 

[Review  the  preceding  lesson.] 

Orthography  treats  of  letters  and  the  proper 
mode  of  combining  (or  joining  them  together) 
into  syllables  and  words. 

A  letter  is  a  mark  or  character  used  in  forming  a  word,  and  denotes 
a  souni  of  the  human  voice,  as  b-a-d  bad,  g-o  go,  f-i-n-i-s-h  finish. 
1* 


8  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GEAMifAR. 

Some  letters  represent  several  sounds,  as  a  in  able,  cedar,  fall,  mat 

iSomfetimcs  two  or  more  letters  are  used  to  represent  a  sound,  as  ch 
in  c/<ild,  ough  in  though. 

Wlien  a  letter  in  a  word  is  not  used  in  pronunciation,  it  is  called  a 
Bileiu  letter,  as  h  in  Aour,  e  in  peace 

There  are  about  forty  Elementary  Sounds  in  the  English  Lang  Lage, 
represented  by  twenty-six  letters,  namely  : 

Capitals.— A  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQR 
STUVWXYZ. 

SmaIjL  Letters. — a  bcdefghijklmnDpqr 
stuvwxyz. 

When  printed  in  the  above  form,  they  are  called  Roman  letters. 
"When  printed  in  this  form,  namely,  A  B  C  D,  &c.,  a  6  c  d,  &a 
they  are  called  Italics. 
AH  the  letters  together  are  called  the  Alphabet 
Letters  are  either  Vowels  or  Consonants. 
A  Yowel  makes  a  free,  full  sound  of  itself. 
A  Consonant  cannot  be  fully  sounded  without  a  vowel. 

The  vowels  are  a  e  i  o  w ;  also,  w  and  y,  not  before  another  vowe* 
Bounded  in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  law,  hoy. 

All  the  other  letters  are  consonants ;  also,  w  and  y  before  a  vowe. 
Bounded  in  the  same  syllable,  as  in  war,  youth. 

A  Diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  in  one  sound,  as  ou  in  otd, 
oi  in  oil 

A  Triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels  in  one  sound,  as  eau  in 
heauty. 

A  Syllable  is  a  distinct  sound,  uttered  by  one  impulse  of  the  voice, 
and  represented  by  one  or  more  letters,  as /arm,  ea-gle,  a-e-ri-al 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable,  as  man. 

A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  Dissyllable,  as  man-ly. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  Trissijllable,  as  man-li-ness. 

A  word  of  four  or  mere  syllables  is  called  a  Polysyllable,  as  Em-i- 
gra-tion,  In-sub-ar-di-na-tion. 

SPELLiNa  is  the  art  of  expressing  words  by 
their  proper  letters.    (See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.,  p.  10.) 

QUESTIONS,— What  is  Orthography?  What  is  a  Letter ?  When 
is  a  Letter  called  silent?  Fow  many  Elementary  Sounds  are  there  in 
English?  How  many  Letters  are  there?  How  are  they  divided? 
What  is  a  Vowel? — a  Consonant?  Name  the  Vowels.  When  are 
iw  and  y  Vowels?  When  Consonants?  What  is  a  Diphthong?  A 
Triphthong?  What  is  a  Syllable?  What  is  a  Word  of  one  Syllable 
Tailed  ?  '  Of  two  ?    Of  three  ?    Of  four  or  more  ?    What  is  Spelling?  ? 


PAKTS   OF   SPEECH.  P 

PAET  SECOND.— ETYMOLOGY. 

liCSSOJl  3. — Division  of  Words. 

Etymology  treats  of  the  classes  of  words,  and 
ijf  the  changes  of  the  form  of  words,  by  inflection 
^nd  by  derivation. 

Inflection  is  tlie  change  of  form  or  termination  which  a  word  under- 
goes to  agree  with  other  words  in  a  sentence,  and  to  properly  express 
an  idea ;  as,  He  sees  gieat  men ;  a  greater  man  Baw  him. 

Derivation  is  the  cliange  in  a  word  from  its  simple  primitive  word* 
thus,  manly,  manhood,  mankind  are  derived  from  '^man" 

Words  are  classed  into  nine  kinds,  called 

Parts  of  Speech. 
The  names  of  the  parts  of  speech  in  our  lan- 
guage are  the  Noun,  Article,  Adjective,  Pronoun, 
Verb,  Adverb,   Preposition,    Interjection,    and 
Conjunction. 

Of  tliese,  the  Noun,  Pronoun,  and  Yerb  are  inflected;  also  some 
Adjeciives  and  Adverbs  are  inflected,  (See  Lesa  11  and  page  75, 
Obs.  2.) 

Ill  grammar,  the  inflection  of  Nouns,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs  is 
usually  treated  of  as  "Accidents."     (See  Lessons  4,  12,  18.) 

Parsing  is  the  taking  of  the  words  of  a  sen- 
tence separately  to  tell  to  what  class  each  be- 
longs, and  then  describing  it. — (Lesson  36.) 

ILLUSTRATION.—"  The  bad  boy  strikes  John"  is  a  sentence.  This 
genience  is  cou.posed  of  words  so  arranged  as  to  convey  to  us  a  cer- 
tain meaning.  Each  of  tiiese  words  is  a  part  of  speech,  and  holds  a 
certain  relation  ■  to  other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  parse  these 
words  when  we  tell  what  parts  of  speech  they  are  and  describe  them. 
Thus  the  is  an  article  and  belongs  to  boy ;  bad  is  an  adjective  qualify- 
ing or  describing  boy ;  buy  is  a  common  noun,  and  is  the  subject  of 
Hiring;  strikes  is  a  verb,  and  tells  what  the  boy  does.  John  is  a 
noun,  and  points  out  the  object  struck. 

QUESTIONS.— What  does  Etymology  treat  of?  What  is  Inflec- 
tion? What  is  Derivation?  What  are  the  nine  classes  of  Words 
called?  Name  Uv.ra.  Which  are  inflected?  Under  what  other 
nam  J  is  the  Inflection  of  Words  treated  of?    Whatja-i^iuaieK  ? 


10  INTKODUCnON   TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAB. 

liCSSOn  4. — Nouns. 
[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

A  NOUN  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  oi 
thing ;  as,  John^  London,  hook. 

Nouns  are  either  Pro^oer  or  Common. 

A  Proper  Noun  is   the  name  applied  to  an' 
individual  person  or  thing  only ;  as,  John,  Lon- 
don, the  Ohio, 

A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  applied  to  all 
things  of  the  same  sort ;  as,  man,  table,  hook, 

A  Noun  is  also  called  a  Substantive. 

A  Substantive  is  a  noun,  or  any  word  or  part  of  a  sentence  used  as 

ft  QOUQ. 

.  Thus,  The  man  has  gone.  He  has  gone.  Charles  Johnson^s  letter 
has  gone.  The  carriage  with  four  horses  has  gone.  These  substan- 
tives are  subjects  of  the  verb  "  has  gone."  All  may  be  quahfied  by  an 
adjective,  thus,  "The  man  is  large.'"   '■^He  is  Zarg'e,"etc.     See  Less.  39. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Every  thing  of  which  a  person  can  speak, 
hear,  or  think,  has  a  name ;  that  name  in  grammar  is  called  a  noun, 
JJ'ames  common  to  all  things  of  the  same  sort  or  class,  are  called  Corn' 
mon  nouns ;  as,  man,  woman,  day,  river,  city,  country. 

Names  applied  only  to  individuals  of  a  sort  or  class,  and  not  com- 
mon  to  all,  are  called  Proper  nouns ;  as,  John,  Friday,  Thames,  LoU' 
don.  Common  nouns,  then,  distinguish  sorts  or  classes;  Proper  nouns 
distinguish  individuals.  Thus,  the  noun  ^'Afan'^  is  the  name  of  a 
class  or  species,  and  is  applied  equally  to  all,  or  is  common  to  all  tho 
individuals  in  that  class.  But  "  John  "  is  a  name  that  belongs  only  to 
certain  individuals  of  that  class,  and  not  to  others;  it  is  therefore  not 
Common  but  Proper,  i.  e.,  belonging  to  an  individual. 

A  word  that  makes  sense  after  an  article,  or  the  phrase  ^eak  of,  is 
a  noun ;  as,  A  man ;  I  speak  of  money. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
Common  nouns  are  divided  into  several  classes,  such  as 

1.  Collective  nouns,  or  nouns  of  multitude;  as,  army,  people. 

2.  Abstract  nouns,  or  names  of  qualities;  as,  piety,  wickedness, 

3.  Va-bal  nouns,  or  names  of  actions;  as,  reading,  writing. 

The  Accidents  of  nouns  are  Person.,  Gender^ 
Numher,  and  Case, 

Note. — These  Accidents  belong  also  to  personal  and  relative  pio 
nouns. — (Lesson  12,  page  27.) 


PEESON.  11 

QUESTIONS. 

"What  is  a  noun  ?  How  many  kinds  of  nouns  are  there  ?  "What  is 
a  common  noun?  "What  is  a  proper  noun?  What  part  of  speech 
Are  names  of  things  ?  What  is  a  collective  noun  ? — an  abstract 
noun  ? — a  verbal  noun  ?  Are  these  nouns  proper  or  common  ?  Wliat 
Accidents  belong  to  nouns? 

EXERCISEa 

Point  out  the  no7ins  in  the  following  sentences  ;  say  why  they  are 
nouns.  Tell  whether  they  are  proper  or  common,  and  why.  Exer- 
cises of  this  kind  may  be  taken  from  any  book. 

The  table  and  chairs  in  this  room  belong  to  Robert. 
The  houses  and  streets  in  New  York  are  larger  than  those 
in  Albany.  The  principal  cities  in  the  State  of  New  York, 
are  New  York,  Brooklyn,  Albany,  Rochester,  and  Buffalo. 
Wheat,  corn,  rye,  and  oats,  are  extensively  cultivated.  Ap- 
ples, pears,  cherries,  plums,  and  other  fruits  abound. 
George  is  older  than  John  ;  they  both  study  arithmetic  and 
grammar. 


liCSSOn    5.— Person. 
[Review  the  three  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Person,  in  grammar,  denotes  the  relation  of 
a  noun  or  pronoun  to  what  is  said  or  written. 
•  The  persons   are   three,  First,  Second,  and 
Third. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  first  person, 
when  it  denotes,  the  speaker  or  writer ;  as,  "  I 
Paul  have  written  it  " — "  We  are  ready  to  go." 

A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  second  person, 
when  it  denotes  something  *  spoken  to ;  as, 
"  Thou,  God,  seest  me  " — '^You  may-  go,  boys." 

A  noun  or  pronoun  is  in  the  third  person, 
when  it  denotes  something  spoken  of;  as, 
"  Truth  is  mighty  "~"  The  dog  followed  me." 


12  INTEODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GBAMMAR. 

Obs. — The  first  and  second  persons  can  belong  only  to  nouns  de- 
noting individuals,  or  things  regarded  as  individuals,  because  such  only 
can  speak  or  be  spoken  to.  The  third  person  may  also  belong  to  such 
nouns ;  and  to  all  nouns,  because  every  individual  or  object  may  be 
spoken  of. 

ILLUSTRATION. — Person  makes  no  change  either  in  the  mean- 
ing or  the  form  of  a  noun,  but  simply  denotes  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  used;  so  that  the  same  noun,  without  change,  may  be  in  the  first 
person,  or  the  second,  or  the  third,  according  as  it  denotes  i!he  speaker, 
the  person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of.  Moreover,  as 
the  name  of  the  speaker  or  of  the  person  spoken  to,  is  seldom  ex- 
pressed (the  pronoun  /or  thou  being  used  in  its  stead),  a  noun  is  very 
seldom  in  the  first  person,  not  ofien  in  the  second,  and  almost  never  in 
either,  unless  it  be  a  proper  noun,  or  a  common  noun  personified. 

EXERCISES. 
In  the  following  exercises  point  out  the  nouns  and  pronouns,  and 
tell  their  persons. 

The  teacher  said  to  Jane,  I  am  pleased  with  your  pro- 
gress. Thou  art  the  man  (119).  John,  wliere  are  you 
going?  Mary,  does  James  study  grammar?  We,  the 
people  of  the  State,  do  ordain.  Go  alono^,  Joseph.  The 
earth  is  a  round  ball.  Earth  and  sky !  how  beautiful  ye 
are.     Man  is  the  servant  of  God. 

QUESTIONS. — What  does  person  denote  ?  How  many  personM 
are  there  ?  When  is  a  noun  in  the  first  person  ?  When  in  the 
second  ?  When  in  the  third  ?  To  what  sort  of  nouns  do  the  first 
and  the  second  persons  belong  ?  Why  ?  To  wliat  does  the  third  be- 
long ?  Wily  ?  Does  person  make  any  difference  in  the  meaning  or 
the  form  of  the  noun?  What  then  does  it  denote?  Is  the  name  of 
the  speaker,  or  tlie  person  spoken  to,  often  mentioned  ?  What  words 
are  used  instead  of  them  ? 


I^esson    6. — Gender. 
[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns with  regard  to  Sex.  There  are  three 
genders,  the  Masculine,  Feminine,  and  Neuter. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  denoting  males  are  Mas- 
culine; as,  man,  hoy, — Icing,  lion, — / — he. 

Nouns  and  pronouns  denoting /<^??2a^^5  are-Fe;w- 
inine  ;  as,  woman,  girl, — queen,  lioness, — I — she* 


GENDER, 


13 


Nouns  and  pronouns  denoting  neither  males 
HOT  females  are  Neuter ;  as,  hooks,  houses,  it. 

The  masculine  and  feminine  genders  of  nouns 
are  distinguished  in  three  ways. 


1.  By  different  corresponding  words  ; 

as, 

Masculine.  Feminine.    Masculine. 

Feminine.    Masculine.    Feminine, 

Bachelor     maid 

Friar 

Dun             Ram,  buck  ewe 

Beau           belle 

Gander 

goose          Sir 

madam 

Boy             girl 

Hart 

roe              Son 

daughter 

Brother       sister 

Horse 

mare           Sloven 

slut 

Buck           doe 

Husband 

wife            Stag 

hind 

Bull            cow- 

King 

queen          Steer 

heifer 

Drake         duck 

Man 

woma,n        Swaia 

nymph 

Earl            countess      Master 

mistress      Uncle 

aunt 

Father        mother        Nephew 

niece           Wizard 

witch 

2.  By  a  difference  of  termination  ;  as, 

Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Masculine. 

Feminine, 

Abbot 

abbess 

Jew 

Jewess 

Actor 

actress 

Lion 

lioness 

Administrator 

administratrix 

Marquis 

march  ionesi 

Ambassador 

ambassadress 

Mayor 

mayoress 

Arbiter 

arbitress    • 

Patron 

patroness 

Author 

authoress 

Peer 

peeress 

Baron 

baroness 

Poet 

poetess 

Benefactor 

benefactress 

Priest 

priestess 

Bridegroom 

bride 

Prince 

princess 

Count 

countess 

Prior 

prioress 

Deacon 

deaconess 

Prophet 

prophetess 

Duke 

duchess 

Shepherd 

shepherdess 

Elector 

electress 

Songster 

songstress 

Emperor 

empress 

Sorcerer 

sorceress 

Enchanter 

enchantress 

Sultan 

sultana 

Executor 

executrix 

Tiger 

tigress 

Governor 

governess 

Traitor 

traitoress 

Heir 

leiress 

Tutor 

tutoress 

Hero 

heroine 

Viscount 

viscountesfl 

Host 

hostess 

Widower 

widow 

3.  By  a  distingnishing  word  prefixed  ;  as, 

Masculine.  Feminine. 

Sparrow               A  cock  sparrow  A  hen  sparrow 

Goat                      A  he  goat  •             A  she  goat 

Servant                A  man  servant  A  maid  servant 

Child                    A  waZe  child  A /emaZe  child 

Descendants         Male  descendants  Female  descendants 


f- 


14  INTEODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GEAMMAR. 

OBSERYATIONS. 

1.  Some  nouns  denote  either  a  male  or  a  female ;  as,  parent,  ser 
vant.  neighbor.     Such  are  sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  common  gender 

2.  Some  masculine  nouns  have  no  corresponding  feminine;  as, 
baker,  brewer,  &c. ;  and  some  feminine  nouns  have  no  corresponding 
masculine;  as,  laundress,  seamstress,  <fec. 

3.  Some  nouns,  generally  of  the  neuter  gender,  have  masculine  or 
femmine  pronouns  when  personided ;  that  is,  when  the  thing  they 
represent  is  considered  to  have  life ;  as  "  The  sun  is  bright,  but  how 
does  he  make  the  day  ?"  "  The  ship  was  admired  as  she  sailed  past." 
See  An.  and  Prac.  Gram.  (130.) 

4.  The  names  of  animals  of  inferior  size,  or  whose  sex  is  not  known, 
are  often  considered  neuter,  and  are  followed  by  the  neuter  pronoun ; 
as,  "  The  cat  caught  a  mouse  and  ate  it." 

QUESTIONS. — What  is  gender  ?  How  many  genders  are  there  ? 
What  nouns  are  said  to  be  masculine?  What,  feminine?  What, 
neuter?  How  are  the  masculine  and  feminine  genders  of  nouns  dis- 
tinguished ?  When  a  noun  denotes  either  a  male  or  a  female,  of  what 
gender  is  it  sometimes  said  to  be  ?  Name  some  nouns  that  have  no 
corresponding  gender  ?  When  is  a  noun,  generally  neuter,  personified  ? 
The  names  of  what  animals  are  often  considered  of  the  neuter  gender? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  preceding  lists,  tell  the  feminine  of  each  masculine  noun, 
and  the  masculine  of  each  feminine. 

2.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  and  gender  of  the  following  words ; 
thus,  house,  a  noun,  neuter;  boy,  a  uoun,  masculine,  &c. 

House,  boy,  stone,  boot,  cow,  father,  mother,  sister, 
brother,  daughter,  aunt,  nephew,  niece,  uncle,  shepherd, 
paper,  pen,  ink,  parent,  neighbor,  friend,  lion,  widow,  baron, 
negro,  hero,  house,  tree,  bird,  mouse,  fly,  &c. 


Lesson  7. — Number, 

[Review  the  three  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  by  which 
it  expresses  one,  or  more  than  one. 

Nouns  have  tioo  numbers,  the  Singular  and 
the  Plural  The  Singular  denotes  one;  the 
Phiral,  77iore  than  one. 


NUMBKR.  16 

GENERAL  RULR 

The  Plural  is  commonly  formed  by  adding  8 
to  the  singular;  as,  sing,  book,  plural  books. 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  s,  sh,  cA  soft,  0,  x,  or  0, 
form  the  plural  by  adding  es  ;  as,  Miss,  Misses  ; 
brush,  brushes  ;  match,  matches  ;  topaz,  topazes  ; 
fox,  foxes  ;  hero,  heroes, 

Exc.  Nouna  ending  in  co,  ro,  and  yo,  and  in  ch  sounding  A:,  add  s 
only;  as,  cameOy  cameos;  folio,  folios;  monarch,  monarchs.  Alsc 
canto  has  cantos ;  but  other  nouns  in  o  after  a  consonant  now  com- 
aiouly  add  es ;  as,  grotto,  grottoes ;  tyro,  tyroes,  &c. 

2.  Nouns  ending  in  t/  after  a  consonant, 
change  ^  into  ies  in  the  plural ;  as,  Zad^,  ladies. 

Nouns  ending  in  2/  after  a  vowel,  follow  the 
general  rule ;  as.  Da?/,  days. 

Also,  all  proper  nouns  ending  in  y ;  as,  the 
Pompeys ;  the  Tullys. 

Nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe,  change  /  or  fe  into 
ves  in  the  plural ;  as,  Loaf,  loaves  ;  life,  lives. 

Exc.  But  dwarf,  scarf;  brief,  chiei",  grief;  kerchief,  handkerchief, 
mischief;  gulf,  turf,  surf;  nfe,  strife ;  proof,  hoof,  roof,  reproof,  fol- 
low the  general  rule.  Also  nouns  in  ff  have  their  plural  in  s  ;  as, 
muff^  muj's  ;  except  staffs  which  has  sometimes  staves. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
See  An.  and  Pr.  Gr.,  155-160. 
1.  Some  nouns  form  the  plural  irregularly.     They  are  the  fol» 
lowing : — 

Singular,  Plural.  Singular.  Plural. 

Man  men  Tooth  teeth 

Woman  women  Goose  geese 

Child  children  Mouse  mice 


16  XNTKODUCTION  TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

Singular,  Plural  Singular.  Phtral 

Foot  feet  Louse  lice 

Ox  oxen  Penny  pence 

Singular.  Plural. 

Brother  (one  of  the  same  family)      "      brothers 
Brother  (one  of  the  same  society)  brethren 

Sow  or  swine  sows  or  swine 

Die  (for  gaming)  dice 

Die  (for  coining)  dies 

Aid-de-camp  aids-de-camp 

Court-martial  courts-martial 

Cousin-german  -  cousins-german 

Father-in-law,  &c.  fathers-in-law,  &c. 

2.  Words  from  foreign  languages  sometimes  retain  their  ort^inal 
plural.  As  a  general  rule,  nouns  in  nm  or  on  have  a  in  the  plural ; 
but  is,  in  the  singular,  is  changed  into  es ;  ex  and  ix,  into  ices  ;  us 
into  i  (154);  as, 

Sing.  Plur.  Sing.  Plnr. 

Arcanum  arcana  Crisis  crises 

Automaton  automata  Apex  apices 

Axis  axes  Magus  magi 

3.  Proper  names  have  the  plural,  only  when  they  refer  to  a  race 
or  family ;  as  the  Stewarts  ;  or  to  several  persons  of  the  same 
name;  as,  the  twelve  Ccesars  (161). 

4.  Names  of  metals,  virtues,  vices,  and  things  weighed  or 
measured,  are  mostly  singular ;  as,  gold,  meekness,  temperance,  milk^ 
sugar,  &c. 

5.  Some  nouns  are  plural  only;  as,  annals,  data,  helloics,  scis- 
sors, &c. 

6.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  troitt, 
salmon,  &c. 

'i.  Some  nouns  are  plural  in  form;  but  in  construction,  either  sin- 
gular or  plural ;  as,  amends,  means,  news,  riches,  pains.;  and  the 
names  of  sciences;  as,  mathematics,  ethics,  &c. 

8.  The  article  a  or  an  before  a  singular  noun,  is  dropped  befora 
the  plural;  as,  singular,  a  man;  plural  men. 


NUMBER.  17 


QUESTIONS. 

"What  'fl  meant  by  number  ?  How  many  numbers  have  nouns  ? 
What  does  the  singular  denote? — the  plural?  How  is  the  plural 
commonly  formed  ?  When  is  the  plural  formed  by  adding  es  ?  How 
do  nouns  endinjj;  In  y  after  a  consonant,  form  the  plurul  ?— after  a 
vowel? — nouns  endin;?  in  forfe?  When  have  proper  names  a  plu- 
ral? What  nouns  are  mostly  singular?  Mention  some  nouns  that 
are  plural  only.  Some  that  are  alike  in  both  numbers.  Some  that 
are  plural  m  form,  but  either  singular  or  plural  in  constmctioa 
When  is  the  article  a  or  an  not  used  ? 


EXERCISES. 

i.  Put  the  following  words  in  the  plirral,  and  give  the  rule  for 
forming  it ;  thus,  "  Chair,  plural  chairs.'"  Rule,  "  The  plural  is 
commonly  formed,"  &c. ;  "/ba-,  plural  foxes''^  R.  " \ouns  in  s, 
sh,''  &c. 

Chaic,  fox,  table,  cat,  dog,  horse,  house,  hand,  finger, 
arm,  boy,  girl;  dish,  church,  box,  miss,  sky,  body,  key,  day, 
toy,  leaf,  knife,  wife,  loaf  An  apple  (Obs.  8,  above),  a. 
pear,  a  cherry,  a  bush,  a  church,  a  bell. 

2.  Write  or  spell  the  singular  of  the  following  plurals,  and  prefix 
the  indefinite  article : 

Flies,  boxes,  leaves,  brushes,  knives,  marshes,  bays, 
tables,  bushes,  trees,  dogs,  ducks,  geese,  wives,  duties, 
churches,  matches,  mice,  days,  keys,  staves,  horses,  mules, 
cows,  sheep,  goa^ls,  &c. 

3.  Tell  the  plural  of  the  following  irregular  nouns. 

Man,  woman,  child,  ox,  tooth,  foot,  goose,  penny,  mouse; 
father-in-law,  mother-in-law,  court-martial,  fisherman,  wash- 
erwoman, cousin-german,  &c. 

4.  Tell  the  gender  and  number  of  the  following  nouns ;  give  the 
plural  and  the  rule  for  forming  it;  thus,  "House,"  a  noun,  neuter, 
singular;  plural,  "houses."     "The  plural  is  commonly  formed,"  &c! 

House.,  boy,  stone,  boat,  father,  king,  knife,  aunt,  empe- 
ror, governess,  pen,  lioness,  baron,  sister,  brother,  lord,  box, 
bush,  rush,  goose,  bachelor,  doe,  bride,  fly,  loaf,  study, 
coach,  toy,  mouth,  watch,  hero,  church,  tree,  way,  wife,  half, 
fish,  table,  mother,  apple,  cherry,  star,  sun,  moon,  planet, 
earth,  sky,  mountain,  river,  sea,  &c. 


18  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

l<essoii  8, —  Cases  of  Nouns. 

[Review  the  three  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Case  is  the  state  or  condition  of  a  noun  with 
respect  to  the  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

Nouns  have  three  cases;  the  Nominative, 
Possessive,  and  Objective. 

The  Nominative  case  commonly  expresses 
that  of  which  something  is  said,  or  declared ; 
as,  The  sun  shines  (164). 

The  Possessive  case  denotes  that  to  which 
something  belongs;  as,  The  lady's  fan  (165). 

The  Objective  case  denotes  the  object  of  some 
action  or  relation;  as,  James  assists  Thomas; 
they  live  in  Albany  (166). 

The  nominative  and  objective  cases  of  nouns 
are  aUke  in  form. 

The  possessive  singular  is  formed  by  adding 
an  apostrojDhe  (')  and  s  to  the  nominative;  as, 
John's. 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  possessive  is 
formed  by  adding  an  apostrophe  only;  as, 
Ladies'. 

NOUNS   ABE  THUS   DECLINED; 


Nom.  Lady  Ladies  John 

Po^s.  Lady's  Ladies'  John's 

Obj.  Lady  Ladies  John 


Proper  names  generally  have  no  plural. 
Parsing. — A  noun  is  parsed  etymologically, 
by  telhng  its  gender,  number,  and  case;  thus, 


CASES    OF    XOUXS.  19 

Lady's,  a  noun,  feminine,  m  the  ^jossessi'ye  sin- 
gular, 

OBSERYATIOXS. 

1.  Wlicn  the  nominative  singular  ends  in  ss,  or  letters  of  a  similar 
sound,  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  is  sometimes  omitted,  in  order  to 
avoid  too  close  a  succession  of  hissing  sounds ;  as,  "  for  goodness' 
sake ;  "  "  for  conscience'  sake."  This  however  is  seldom  done,  unless 
the  word  following  begins  with  s ;  thus  we  do  not  say  "the  prince* 
feather,"  but  the  "prince's  feafher." 

2.  The  objective  case,  with '  of  before  it,  is  generally  equivalent 
to  the  possessive;  thus,  "the  rage  of  the  tyrani,''''  and  "  the  tyranCs 
rage"  mean  the  same  thing.  Sometimes,  however,  the  meaning  will 
be  different.     [See  An.  k  Vv.  Gr.  176.] 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  case?  How  many  cases  have  noitns?  What  docs  the 
nominative  case  express? — the  possessive? — the  objective?  What 
two  cases  are  alike  ?  How  is  the  possessive  singular  formed  ? — the 
possessive  plural? 

EXERCISES. 

Gender,  Ntimber^  and  Case. 

Pjvrse  the  following  nouns  by  telling  their  gender,  number,  and  case ; 
thus,   "Father,"  a  noun,   masculine,   in  the   nominative  singular.* 

Father,  mother,  sister's  husband,  brother's  wife,  uncle's 
house,  Tom's  books,  city,  virtue's  reward,  brother's  widow, 


*In  using  the  above  exercises,  it  will  save  much  time,  which 
is  all  important,  if  the  pupil  be  taught  to  vsay  every  thing  belong- 
ing to  the  noun  in  the  fewest  words  possible ;  and  always  in  the 
same  order  as  above.  For  the  same  reason,  the  distinction  of  nouns 
into  prober  and  common  may  be  omitted.  And  as  person  hfis 
nothing  to  do  with  the  form  of  a  noun,  but  only  with  its  use ;  and 
as  nouns  are  almost  always  of  the  third  person,  the  mention  of  per- 
son may  be  omitted,  if  the  teacher  chooses ;  but  when  the  noun  is  in 
the  first  or  the  second  person,  ii  should  be  mentioned.  It  will  also 
be  a  profitable  exercise  for  him  to  assign  a  reason  for  every  part  of 
his  description  ;  thus,  Father^  a  nonn,  because  tliC  name  of  an  object; 
inascvlijie,  because  it  denotes  the  7i}aU-  sej  ;  lingular,  because  it  de- 
notes but  orie ;  plural,  fcthcm.  Rule,  "The  plural  is  commonly 
formed  by  adding  a  to  the  singular." 


20  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

Washington  the  hero,  the  statesman,  the  fatlier  of  liis  conn, 
try:  carpenter,  farmer,  lawyer's  fees,  teacher's  manual, 
scholar's  assistant,  ladies'  gloves;  beans,  peas,  plums,  cher- 
ries, houses,  lands,  rivers,  mountains,  sun,  moon^  stars; 
Heaven,  earth,  sky,  &c. 

[Review   the  whole  thoroughly  from  the   bcginuiug,   answering 
accurately  all  the  questions.] 


liessoii  9. —  The  Article, 

An  Article  is  a  word  put  before  a  noun,  to 
show  the  manner  in  which  it  is  used. 

There  are  two  articles,  a  or  an,  and  the. 

A  or  an  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article,  be- 
cause it  shows  that  its  noun  is  used  indefinitely, 
and  not  limited  to  a  particular  person  or  thing; 
as,  a  king,  an  eagle,  meaning  ang  king,  any  eagle. 

The  is  called  the  Definite  Article,  because  it 
shows  that  its  noun  is  used  definitely,  and  refers 
to  a  particular  person  or  thing;  as,  the  king^ 
meaning  some  particular  king,  known  or  de- 
scribed. 

Generally,  a  noun  without  an  article  is  taken  in  its  widest  sense, 
as,  Man  is  mortal,  meaning  All  mankind :  Or,  in  an  indefinite  sense ; 
as,  There  are  men  destitute  of  all  shame,  meaning  some  men. 

The  is  sometimes  put  before  a  noun  denoting  the  species;  as,  the 
oak;  the  lion  (709) 

When  an  article  and  adjective  are  used  with  a  noun,  the  article 
generally  stands  before  the  adjective ;  as,  a  large  eagle,  the  tame  lion. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

r     1.  -4.  is  used  before  a  consonant ;  as,  a  look,  a  house,  a  tree. 

Also,  before  words  beginning  with  u  long,  and  eu,  because  the^ 
sound  as  if  beginning  with  the  consonant  y :  thus,  A  unit,  a  use,  a 
eulogy, — ^pronounced  as  if  written,  a  yunit,  a  yuse,  a  yeulogy. 


THE   AETICLE.  21 

2.  Instead  of  a,  an  is  used  before  an  adjective  or  noun,  heginnw^ 
vjith  a  vowel  or  a  silent  h ;  as,  an  aged  man,  an  acoruy  an  hour,  an 
honor. 

8.  A  or  an  is  used  before  the  singular  number  only;  the^  before 
either  the  singular  or  the  plural. 

Parsing. — The  article  is  parsed  by  stating 
whether  it  is  definite  or  indefinite,  and  men- 
tioning the  noun  to  which  it  belongs;  thus, 

A  book.     A  is  an  article,  indefinite,  and  belongs  to  ^^book.'''' 

QUESTIOXS. 

What  is  an  article  ?  How  many  articles  are  there  ?  WHiat  is  A 
or  An  called?  Why?  What  is  77/e  called?  Why?  In  what 
sense  is  a  noun  without  an  article  taken  ?  Wliat  is  A  used  before  ? 
What  is  An  used  befoi-e?     How  is  the  article  parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

Is  it  proper  to  say  a  man,     or  an  man  ?     and  why  ? 
a  apple,  or  an  apple  ?     and  ^why  ? 
a  house,  or  an  house  ?    and  why  ? 
a  hour,    or  an  hour  ?     and  why  ? 

Prefix  the  indefinite  article  in  the  proper  form  to  the  following 
words : 

Chair,  table,  horse,  cart,  book,  house,  garden,  bird,  owl, 
eg^,  ear,  eye,  tree,  cow,  unit,  use,  old  man,  young  man, 
word,  book,  pot,  bench,  open  wagon,  round  stone,  old  haL» 
penny  trumpet,  ice  house,  house,  honor,  hopeful  boy,  honest 
man,  &c.     See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  187. 

Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  change ; 
parse  the  articles. 

An  cup,  an  door,  a  apple,  an  pear,  an  hat,  an  wig,  an 
eulogy,  a  honor,  an  crow,  a  ostrich,  an  pen,  a  ugly  beast, 
an  pretty  bea  t,  an  pretty  thing,  an  huge  monster,  a  upper 
room,  a  ice  house,  an  nice  house,  an  humorous  poem,  a  open 
wagon,  an  hard  nut.  &c. 


\f^\^   Of  THE 


22  INTRODUCTION    TO   ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

liCSfSon  10. —  Tlie  Adjective. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  a 
substantive ;  as,  A  good  boy ;  a  square  box  ;  ten 
dollars.     He  is  poor.     To  lie  is  hase  (196).    ^ 

For  the  word  Substantive,  see  Lesson  4.  "^M 

Adjectives  denoting  number,  are  called  Nu- 
meral adjectives.  Of  these,  there  are  two 
classes ;  the  Cardinal,  and  the  Ordinal. 

The  Cardinal  are  one,  two,  three,  &c.,  and 
express  how  many — ^^vritten  in  figures,  thus, 
1,  2,  3,  &c. 

The  Ordinal,  are  first,  second,  third,  &c.,  and 
express  which  one  of  a  number — written  in 
figures,  thus,  1st,  2d,  3d,  4th,  &c. 

ILLUSTRATIONS. — A  noun,  or  the  name  of  a  thing  being  men-  i 
tioned  without  qualification,  brings  before  the  mind  the  idea  of  the  j 
thing  itself.  Thus,  the  word  "  horse,"  for  example,  suggests  thej 
idea  of  the  animal  so  called.  But  if  we  wish  to  describe  or  point  out 
a  particular  horse  more  definitely,  and  to  distinguish  it  from  others 
of  the  same  species,  we  qualify  the  term,  (196);  i,  e.,  we  connect 
with  the  name  or  noun  a  word  denoting  some  property,  or  quality, 
or  circumstance  by  which  it  may  be  known  or  distinguislied ;  as,  "a 
little  horse;"  "an  old  horse;"  "a  black  horse;"  "an  American 
horse,"  &c.  Words  used  for  this  purpose  are  called  Adjectives. 
Sometimes  several  of  these  may  be  joined  with  the  same  noun ;  as, 
when  we  say,  "  a  little  old  black  horse ; "  "a  smooth  white  r&und 
stone  ; "  "  the  good  old  way." 

In  any  phrase  or  sentence,  the  adjective  qualifying  a  noun  may 
generally  be  found  by  prefixing  the  expression,  "What"  or  "What 
kind  of,"  to  the  noun  in  the  form  of  a  question  ;  as.  What  kind  of  i\ 
horse  ?  What  kind  of  a  stone  ?  What  kind  of  a  way  ?  The  woid 
containing  the  answer  to  the  question  is  an  adjective. 

It  may  assist  the  "  young  beginner"  also  to  remember,  that  a  word 
which  makes  sense'with  the  word  thing  after  it,  is  an  adjective ;  thuj 
good,  had,  little,  round,  may  be  adjectives,  because  we  can  say  jj 
good  thing,  a  bad  thing,  a  little  thing,  &c. 


THE   ADJECTIVE.  23 

OBSERVATIOXS. 

1.  Other  parts  of  speech,  when  used  to  qualify  or  limit  a  noun,  or 
pronoun,  perform  the  part  of  adjectives,  and  should  be  parsed  as 
such ;  as,  A  gold  ring,  a  he  bear,  the  ilien  king,  the  above  remark, 
&c. 

2.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns;  as,  "God  rewards  the 
good  and  punishes  the  bad.''''  "  The  virtuous  are  the  most  happy." 
Adjectives  thus  used  are  regarded  as  plural,  because  they  denote 
more  than  one. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What  is  an  adjective?  What  are  adjectives  denoting  number 
called?  What  is  a  numeral  adjective?  How  many  classes  of  nume- 
ral adjectives  are  there  ?  What  are  the  cardinal  numbers  ?  What 
do  they  express?  What  are  the  ordinal  numbers ?  What  do  they 
express  ?  When  do  nouns  or  other  parts  of  speech  become  adjec- 
tives? Are  adjectives  ever  used  as  nouns?  Of  what  numBer  are 
they  considered  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  let  the  pupil  first  point  out  the  nouns, 
and  then  the  adjectives ;  and  tell  how  he  knows  them  to  be  so. 

A  round  table,  a  pretty  dog,  a  little  mouse,  a  low  chair, 
a  small  book,  a  sharp  knife,  white  paper,  dirty  books,  ugly 
faces,  a  beautiful  flower,  a  rich  man,  fresh  fish,  a  wild  horse, 
a  sliort  man,  an  old  hat,  a  fierce  dog,  a  good  pen,  a  wise 
king,  an  honest  man,  tame  rabbits,  a  fine  day,  a  sweet 
apple,  a  long  stick,  a  little  handsome  old  woman,  a  thick 
square  book,  a  large  white  cat,  a  new  book,  a  clean  white 
frock,  a  full  cup,  an  empty  mug,  a  warm  room,  a  is^et  towel, 
a  cold  rainy  night,  a  cloudy  sky,  windy  weather,  hard  frost, 
deep  snow. 

2.  In  the  above  Exercises,  let  the  pupil  take  each  noun  and  prefix 
to  it  as  many  adjectives  as  he  can  think  of,  so  as  to  make  sense :  as, 
for  example,  "  table,"  high  table,  loijo  table,  long  table,  &c.  &c.,  and 
in  reciting  put  the  emphasis  on  the  adjective. 

3.  Let  him  take  each  adjective,  and  add  to  it  as  many  nouns  as  he 
can  think  of,  so  as  to  make  sense;  as,  "round,"  a  round  ball^  around 
hole,  a  round  home^  a  round  cake^  etc.,  and  put  the  emphasis  on  the 
ttoun. 

2 


t4  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAB.     ' 

liesson  11. —  Comparison  of  Adjectives, 
[Review  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Adjectives  usually  have  three  forms,  called 
degrees  of  comparison  3  the  Positive,  Compara^ 
iive,  and  Superlative, 

The  Positive  expresses  the  quality  simply ;  as,  John  is  tall. 

The  Comparative  expresses  the  quality  in  a  higher  degree  iu  on? 
object  than  another ;  as,  James  is  taller  than  John. 

The  Superlative  expresses  the  quality  in  the  highest  degree  in  ont 
object  compared  with  two  or  more ;  as,  Joseph  is  the  tallest  of  all. 

Adjectives  of  one  syllable  form  the  compar- 
ative by  adding  er  to  the  positive;  and  the 
superlative,  by  adding  est ;  as,  sweet,  sweeter, 
sweetest. 

Adjectives  ending  in  e  silent,  di op  e  before  er 
and  est ;  as,  large,  larger,  largest  (68). 

Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  are  com- 
monly compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most ; 
as,  beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful. 

To  these  rules  there  are  some  exceptions.  Adjectives  of  two  syl- 
lables are  sometimes  compared  by  er  and  est ;  as,  our  ienderest  cares ; 
a  happier  state  ;  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  are  sometimes  com- 
pared by  prefixing  more  and  most;  as,  more  wise,  most  Jit. 

A  lower  degree  of  comparison  is  expressed  by  prefixing  less  and 
host  to  the  positive;  as,  less  beautiful,  least  beautiful  (217-218). 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  Dissyllables  ending  inle  afler  a  mute,  are  generahy  compared  by 
er  and  est;  as,  able,  abler,  ablest.  After  a  consonant,  y  is  changed  into 
t  before  er  and  est;  as,  dry,  drier,  driest;  happy,  happier,  happiest; 
y  with  a  vowel  before  it,  is  not  changed  ;  as,  gay,  gayer,  gayest. 

2.  Some  adjectives  form  the  superlative  by  adding  most  to  the  end 
of  the  word ;  as,  upper,  uppermost  .So  undermost,  foremost,  hindmost. 
uMwst, 


COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES. 


25 


8.  When  the  positive  ends  in  a  simple  consonant  preceded  by  a 
single  vowel,  the  consonant  is  doubled  before  er  and  est;  as.  hot^ 
hotter,  hottest  (60). 

4.  Some  adjectives  do  not  admit  of  comparison,  viz. : 

1st.  Such  as  denote  number;  as,  one,  two:  third,  fourth. 

2d.  figure  or  shape;  as,  circular,  square. 

'  3d. posture,    or    position ;    as,    perpendicular, 


horizojital.  ' 

4th.  Those  of  aa  absolute  or  superlative  signification ;  as,  true, 
perfect,  imiversal,  chief,  extreme,  &c.  (224). 
o.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly,  as  follows : 

ADJECTIVES    COMPARED    IRREGULARLY. 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

Good 

better 

best 

Bad,  evil  or  ill 

worse 

worst 

Little 

less 

least 

Much  or  many 

more 

most 

Late 

later 

latest  or  last 

Near 

nearer 

nearest  or  next 

Far 

farther 

farthest 

Fore 

former 

foremost  or  first 

Old 

older  or 

elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

6.  Micch  is  applied  to  things  weighed  or  tneasured  ;  many  to  thoae 
that  are  numbered.  Elder  and  eldest  are  applied  to  persons  onlvj 
oZ(/er  and  oldest,  to  tiihQT  persons  or  things. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are  there?  What  does  the 
positive  denote  ? — the  comparative  ? — the  superlative  ?  How  are 
monosyllables  compared  ? — words  of  more  than  one  syllable  ? — dis- 
syllables in  le  after  a  mute  ? — in  y  after  a  consonant  ?  What  sort 
of  adjectives  double  the  final  consonant  before  er  and  es^  .^  What 
adjectives  are  not  compared  ?  What  adjectives  are  compared  irreg- 
ularly ? 

Parsing. — Adjectives  are  parsed  by  stating 
tlieir  class  (if  numerals),  the  degree  of  com- 
parison,  and  the  nouns  which  they  qualify. 


26  INTBODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  adjectives  in  the  following  Exercise  ;  parse  them ; 
compare  them;  thus,  a  good  lather;  "Good,"  an  adjective,  positive 
degree,  qualifies  "  father,"  compared  irregularly,  aood,  letter,  best. 

2.  Point  out  the  nouns^  and  parse  them  by  telling  their  gender, 
number,  and  case,  as  directed;  thus,  "father,"  a  noun,  masculine,  in 
the  nominative  singular. 

A  good  father,  a  wiser  man,  a  more  beautiful  girl,  wild^ 
horses,  young  colts,  a  sweeter  apple,  the  Avisest  prince,  green 
trees,  the  honest  farmers,  the  most  virtuous  people,  the 
richer  tradesman,  the  better  scholar,  the  tf.Pest  girl,  the 
finer  sheep,  large  oranges,  the  merriest  fellow;,  the  old  sol- 
dier, pretty  dogs,  an  ugly  calf,  the  tamest  rabl::::i,  the  little 
mouse,  the  longest  stick,  a  wider  table,  a  most  excellent 
thing,  the  highest  house,  the  most  fruitful  garden. 

Numerals. — Four  men,  the  fourth  day,  six  days,  the 
seventh  day,  365  days,  ten  horses,  the  first  time; — of  four 
houses,  the  first  is  of  wood ;  the  second,  of  stone ;  the  third 
and  the  fourth,  of  brick. 

3.  Turn  back,  and  go  over  the  adjectives  in  the  exercise,  Lesson 
10,  in  the  same  way. 

4.  In  both  exercises,  change  singular  nouns  into  plural,  and  plura 
into  singular;  give  the  rule  for  t!ie  plural,  and  then  read  the  phrase 
BO  changed ;  thus,  Father,  pi.  fathers.  "  The  plural  is  coiumonly 
formed  by  adding  s  to  the  siuguiar,'  good  fathers. 


Lesson  13. — Pronouns. 

[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.J 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun; 
as,  John  is  a  good  boy ;  he  is  diligent  in  hu 
studies. 

Sometimes  a  pronoun  is  used  as  a  substantive ;  as,  Ee  who  studies 
win  learu.     (109.) 

Some  pronouns  relate  to  nouns  or  substantives ;  others  are  used  to 
ask  questions,  and  others  are  used  in  corinection  with  nou:is. 

Pronouns  may  l.)e  divided  into  four  clivsses;  Personal 
Relative^  Interrogative^  and  Adjective, 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  9T 

The  Accidents  of  Personal,  Relative,  and  Interrogative 
pronouns,  like  nouns,  are  Person^  Gender^  Number,  and  Case, 

ILLUSTRATION". — Generally  pronouns  are  used  to  avoid  the  toe 
frequent  repetition  of  the  nouns  for  wiiich  they  stand.  Thus,  instead 
of  saying,  John  is  a  good  boy;  John  is  diligent  in  John's  studies;  we 
use  the  pronoun,  and  say  as  above,  "John  is  a  good  boy ;  h^  is  dili- 
gent in  his  studies." 

Some  pronouns  relate  to  nouns  or  substantives;  as,  "He  who 
studies  wiU  learn;"  others  are  used  to  ask  questions;  as,  "  What  did 
he  say?"  and  others  are  used,  hke  adjectives,  in  connection  with 
nouns  ;  as,  "  My  book,"  "  That  horse."  But,  though  a  pronoun  may 
indicate  a  noun,  it  does  not  express  any  quality  of  it  as  an  adjective 
does. 

PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

Personal  Pronouns  are  those  wnich  distin- 
guish the  person  by  their  form.  They  are 
either  simple  or  compound. 

1.  The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  /,  thoUy 
he,  she,  it ;  with  their  plurals,  we,  ye  or  you^ 
they. 

I  is  of  the  first  person,  and  denotes  the  speaker. 
Thou  is  of  the  second  person,  and  denotes  the  person  spoken  to. 
JETe,  she,  it,  are  of  the  third  person,  and  denote  the  person  or  thing 
Bpoken  of. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  inflected : 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 


Nbm. 

Foss. 

ObJ.           Mm. 

Foss. 

Obi, 

i. 

m.  or/. 

1 

mine 

mo             "We 

ours 

us 

2. 

m.  or/. 

Thou 

thine 

thee           You 

yours 

you 

3. 

masc. 

He 

his 

him             They 

theirs 

them 

3. 

fern. 

She 

her 

hers            They 

theirs 

them 

3. 

neut. 

It 

its      . 

it                They 

theirs 

them 

OBSERTATIONS. 

1.  In  proclamations,  charters,  editorial  articles,  and  the  like,  we  is 
frequently  applied  to  one  person ;    thus  an  editor  writes,  "  We  think." 

2.  In  addressing  persons,  you  is  commonly  put  both  for  the  singu 
lar  and  the  plural,  and  has  always  a  plural  verb.  Thou  is  used  only 
iu  addresses  to  the  Deity,  or  any  important  object  in  nature  j  or  to 


28  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

mark  special  emphasis ;  or,  in  the  language  of  contempt.     The  plu- 
ral form,  ye^  is  now  but  seldom  used.   • 

3.  The  pronoun  it^  besides  its  use  as  the  neuter  pronoun  of  the 
third  person,  is  also  used  indefinitely  with  the  verb  to  be  in  the  third 
person  singular,  for  all  genders,  numbers,  and  persons ;  as,  It  is  /,  it 
is  we,  it  is  you,  it  is  they ;  It  was  she,  &c. 

4.  The  possessive  case  of  the  pronoun  can  not,  like  the  possessive 
of  the  noun,  be  followed  by  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed.  Thus, 
we  can  say,  Mary''s  book,  but  not  "  hersihook  ;"  and  yet  we  can  say 
equally  well,  "  It  is  Ifary's"  or,  "  it  is  hers.'''*  In  both  these  last  ex- 
pressions, the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  not  expressed  but  im- 
plied.    [See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  241.] 

-  5.  Hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  tJieirs,  should  never  be  written  her^s  its, 
cur's,  your^s,  their* s. 

2.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are 
Myself,  thyself,  himself  herself  itself ;  with 
their  plurals,  ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves. 

These  pronouns  are  used,  without  change  of  form,  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  the  objective  cases.  In  the  nominative  they  are  emphatic, 
and  are  added  to  their  respective  personal  pronouns  or  nouns,  or  are 
used  instead  of  them ;  as.  "I  myself  did  it ;"  " /u'wse//* shall  come." 
In  the  objective,  they  are  refexive,  showing  that  the  agent  is  also  the 
object  of  his  own  act;  as,  "Judas  went  and  hanged  himself ^  Our- 
self  and  yourself  are  used  as  compounds  corresponding  to  we  and 
you  applied  to  individuals;  as,  "We  ourself  will  follow."  "You 
must  do  it  yourself y 

Parsing. — The  personal  pronouns  may  be 
parsed  briefly  thus;  /  is  a  pronoun  of  the 
first  person,  masculine  (or  feminine),  in  the 
nominative  singular. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  pronoun?  How  are  pronouns  divided?  What  is  a 
personal  pronoun  ?  Why  is  it  called  personal  ?  What  are  they  ? 
Decline  the  first — the   second — the  third.     Of  what  person  is  //— 


PRONOUNS.  29 

0hwtf — he,  she,  it?  What  docs  the  first  person  denote? — the  sec- 
ond?— the  third?  To  what  class  do  viyaelf,  thyaelf,  &c.,  belong? 
In  what  cases  are  they  used  ?  How  are  they  appHed  in  the  nomina- 
tive ? — in  the  objective  ?     How  is  you  appUed? — thoul — it? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Go  over  the  following  list  of  prononns  and  tell  thaiv  person. 
Go  over  them  again  and  tell  their  gender :  again,  and  tell  their  imni- 
ber :  again,  and  tell  their  case :  and  lastly,  tell  their  gender,  nwnber, 
and  ca-ic,  together. 

1.  thou,  we,  me,  us,  thine,  he,  him,  she,  hers,  they,  thee, 
them,  its,  theirs,  yon,  her,  ours,  yours,  mine,  his,  I,  me, 
them,  us,  we,  thou,  thine,  ye,  ours,  yours.  Himself,  your- 
selves, herself,  themselves,  ourself,  youi*seIf,  itself. 

2.  Point  out  the  pronouns  in  the  following  Exercise.  Parse  them 
by  telling  tiieir  person,  gender,  number,  and  case  ;  thus,  "me,"  a 
pronoun,  first  person,  mascuhne,  in  the  objective,  singular. 

3.  Point  out  the  nouns  and  parse  them ;  the  adjectives  and  parse 
them.     Compare  them. 

4.-  Read  over  each  sentence,  and  tell  what  each  of  the  pronouns 
stands  for ;  thus,  me  stands  for  the  speaker ;  you  for  the  person  spo- 
ken to,  &c. 

Give  me  the  pears  you  bought  of  him  ;  I  like  them  bet- 
ter than  the  apple  he  bought ;  it  was  sour.  She  told  us 
what  we  said  to  her,  and  they  heard  her.  Put  it  on,  will 
you  ?  He  likes  thsm  because  they  are  sweet.  Take  them 
to  John.  I  gave  them  to  her.  We  will  do  it,  if  you  wish. 
Tije  men  said  they  would  do  it.  The  girl  said  she  did  not 
know  them.  The  boy  thought  he  knew  ihem.  You  and  I 
went  with  them  to  meet  her  after  she  had  seen  him.  He 
and  I  can  do  it,  though  you  can  not.  James  bought  that 
book ;  it  is  therefore  his,  and  not  hers. 

"Rememl)er  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth." 
"  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  that  thy  days  may  be 
long  in  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  givetli  thee." 
"  As  ye  would  that  others  should  do  to  you,  do  ye  even  so 
to  them." 
6.  Take  any  easy  reading  lesson,  and  go  over  it  in  the  same  way. 


so  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GEAMMAH. 

Ijessoil  13. — Relative  Pronouns. 

[Review  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  answer  tlie  questions.] 

1.  A  Eelative  Pronoun  is  one  that  relates 
to,  and  connects  its  clause  with,  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun before  it,  called  the  antecedent;  as,  *^ The 
master  who  taught  us." 

The  antecedent  is  conmiouly  a  noun  or  pronoun;  sometimes  a 
phrase,  or  clause  of  a  sentence;  as,  (Lesson  39,  p.    229.) 
The  bo^  wlio  reads ; 
Ife  who  does  well,  will  be  rewarded ; 
Jarnes  is  sicky  which  accounts  for  his  absence. 

2.  The  relative  pronouns  are  w7io,  whicJi, 
that,  and  what.  Who  and  which  are  alike  in 
both  numbers ;  and  are  thus  declined : 

Sing,  and  Plur. 
Which 
Whose 
Which 

3.  Who  is  applied  to  persons ;  as,  the  boy 
who  reads : 

And  also  to  inferior  animals,  and  things  without  life,  when  they 
are  represented  as  speaking  and  acting  like  rational  beings. 

4.  Which  is  applied  to  inferior  animals,  and 
things  without  life ;  as,  the  dog  which  barks ; 
the  book  which  was  lost: 

And  also  to  collective  nouns  composed  of  persons ;  as,  *'  the  court 
of  Spain,  which ;"  "  the  company  which."  And  likewise  after  the 
name  of  a  person  used  merely  as  a  word;  as,  "The  court  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  which  was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy." 

Wliich  was  formerly  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  things,  and  is  so 
used  in  the  common  version  of  the  Scriptures. 

5.  That  is  often  used  as  a  relative,  instead  of 
who  or  which.  It  is  applied  both  to  persons  and 
things ;  as,  the  man  that  walks ;  the  stone  that 
rolls. 


Sing,  and  Plur. 

Norn. 

Who 

Poss. 

Whose 

Obj. 

Whom 

INTEEEOGATIVE  PEONOUNS.  SI 

6.  What,  as  a  relative  pronoun,  is  applied  to 
things  only,  and  is  never  used  but  when  the 
antecedent  is  omitted ;  as,  "  This  is  what  I 
wanted  "=  that  which  I  wanted. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  RELATIVE. 

1.  The  office  of  the  relative  is  twofold. — 1st.  It  is  used  to  connect 
its  clause  with  the  antecedent  for  the  purpose  of  further  describing 
it.  Thus  used,  it  is  said  to  be  additive;  as,  "Light  is  a  body  winch 
moves  with  great  celerity  "=^  and  it  moves,  &c.  2d.  It  is  used  to  con- 
nect its  clause  with  the  antecedent  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  or  re- 
stricting it  like  an  adjective  or  adjunct.  Thus  used,  it  is  said  to  be 
restrictive ;  as,  "  The  man  wlio  is  goodjtis  happy  "=The  good  man  is 
happy  (26*7). 

2.  jVJioever,  whosoever,  whatever,  and  wh-atsoever,  are  used  as  com- 
pound relatives,  and  are  equivalent  to  the  relative  and  a  general,  op 
indefinite  antecedent ;  as,  "  Whosoever  committeth  sin,  is  the  servant 
•f  sin;"  tbat  is,  '■'■  any  one,"*^  or  "  every  one  who  committeth  sin,"  &c. 
"  Whatsoever  things  are  of  good  report ;"  i.  e.  '■'■All  things  (without 
exception)  which  are  of  good  report."     [See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  752.] 

3.  Wliich  and  what  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  and  have  a 
noun  following  them  ;  as,  "  Tell  me  what  books  you  are  reading ; " 
*'  Wliich  things  are  an  allegory."  In  this  sense,  which  applies  either 
to  persons  or  things,  and  in  meaning  is  equivalent  to  this  or  these. 

4.  Who,  and  also  which  and  ivhat,  without  a  noun  following,  ar# 
sometimes  used  as  indefinite  pronouns ;  as,  I  do  not  know  who  wil^ 
Y)e  our  next  President. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Who,  ichich,  and  lohat,  when  used  in  asking 
questions,  are  called  Interrogative  pronouns. 

As  interrogatives,  who  is  applied  to  persons 
only ;  which  and  what,  either  to  persons  or 
things.      What  is  indeclinable. 


S2  INTIIODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

WhOy  toJiicJi,  and  what,  used  responsively, 
are  iiidefinite  pronouns;  as,  "I  \<Jiow  lolio  wrote 
that  letter." 

Parsing. — The  relative  is  parsed  by  stating 
its  gender,  number,  case,  and  antecedent;  (the 
gender  and  number  being  always  the  same  as 
those  of  the  antecedent)  thus : 

"The  boy  who." — "  lIV/o"  is  a  relative  pronoun,  masculine,  in  the 
nominative  singular,  and  refers  to  "6oy"  as  its  antecedent. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun?  What  is  the  word  to  which  it  relates 
called  ?  What  is  the  ^:roper  u?e  of  the  relative  pronoun  ?  What  are 
the  relative  pronouns  ?  What  is  v:ho  applied  to  ?  What  is  which  ap- 
plied to?  Why  is  that  v.sed  as  a  relative?  To  what  is  it  applied? 
What  sort  of  a  relative  is  what?  What  does  it  include  ?  What  sort 
of  words  are  whoever^  &c.  ?  When  tohich  and  lohat  are  followed  by 
nouns,  what  part  of  speech  are  they  ?  What  are  the  interrogative 
pronouns  ?  Why  are  they  called  interrogative  ?  As  an  interroga- 
tive, what  is  liho  applied  to  ? — which  ? — wJiat  ?  In  parsing  the  rela- 
tive, what  is  mentioned  ?  How  are  the  gender  and  number  of  the 
relative  known  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  I3  it  proper  to  say — the  man  who,  or  the  man  which  ?        why  ? 

the  dog  who,  or  the  dog  which?  why? 

the  tree  who,  or  the  tree  which  ?         why  ? 
the  family  who,  or  the  family  which  ?  why  ? 

2.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  rdatice^  and  the 
word  to  which  it  relates ;  also  the  interrogatives. 

8.  What  is  the  use  of  the  relative  in  the  first  sentence  ?  in  the 
second?  hi  the  third?  &c.     (See  Obs.  1,  p.  31.) 

The  boy  who  studies  will  improve.  I  love  the  man  who 
tells  the  truth,  but  all  hate  him  who  deals  in  falsehood.  Do 
you  remember  the  man  whom  we  met  ?  There  is  tiie  book 
which  you  lost.  It  is  the  same  book  that  you  bought.  That 
is  the  lady  who  has  been  kind  to  u.s,  and  whose  hand  is  ever, 
open  to  the  poor.  It  is  the  hand  of  the  dilij^ent  that  mak- 
eth  rich.  He  that  giveth  to  the  poor  lendeth  to  the  Lord. 
The  temple  which   Solomon  built.   'Who  gave  you  that 


ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS.  33 

book,  which  you  prize  so  much  ?  Which  house  is  yours  ? 
He  who  preserves  me,  to  whom  I  owe  my  being,  whose  I 
ftm,  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal. 


licsson  14. — Adjective  Pronouns, 

[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

There  are  four  sorts  of  Adjective  pronouns; 
viz.,  the  Possessive,  J}isiributive,  Demonstra- 
live)  and  Indefinite. 

1.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  such  as  de- 
note possession.  They  are  my,  thy,  his,  her, 
our,  your,  their,  its,  (292-295). 

2.  The  Distributbje  pronouns  represent  ob- 
jects as  taken  separately.  They  are  each, 
every,  either,  neither.  (See  An.  &  Pr.  Gram. 
297-301). 

3.  The  Demonstrative  pronouns  pomt  out 
objects  definitely.  They  are  this  and  that, 
with  their  plurals,  these  and  those. 

4.  The  Indefinite  pronouns  denote  persons 
or  things  indefinitely.  They  are  7ione,  any, 
all,  such,  whole,  some,  both,  one,  other.  The 
two  last  are  declined  like  noims. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  These  pronouns  are  called  adjective,  because,  like  adjectives,  they 
eitlier  are,  or  may  be,  followed  by  a  noun  which  they  qualify  or 
Umit.  i 

2.  Possessive  pronouns  have  the  same  meaning  as  the  possessive 
case  of  the  personal  pronouns  to  which  they  relate,  but  are  used  dif- 
ferently.   The  possessive  pronoun  must  always  have  a  noun  after  it, 


34  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

the  possessive  case  of  the  personal,  never,  as  it  always  refers  to  a 
noun  previously  expressed ;  thus, 

Possessive  Pronoun.  Possessive  Case. 

This  is  mi/  book ;  This  book  is  mine. 

That  is  her  pen ;  That  pen  is  hers.     , 

TltiS  is  your  hat ;       ^^6  This  hat  is  i/ozirs. 

y  It  is  their  house ;  The  house  is  theirs. 

Note. — Oion  is  added  to  another  possessive  to  make  it  emphatic; 
as,  "wy  o?cn,"  '■'■their  ow7i"  'Hhe  boy'' s  own  book." 

3.  His  and  Jier,  followed  by  a  noun,  are  possessive  pronouns ;  not 
followed  by  a  noun,  they  are  personal  pronouns. 

4.  That  is  sometimes  a  demonstrative,  sometimes  a  relative,  and 
sometimes  a  conjunction ;  thus, 

De7n.  That  book  is  mine. 

Pel.     It  is  the  book  that  I  bought. 

Conj.  I  read,  that  I  may  learn. 

5.  Among  indefinites  may  also  be  reckoned  such  words  as  wo,  few, 
many,  several,  and  the  like ; — the  compounds  tvhoever,  whatever, 
whichsoever,  &c.,  and  who,  which,  and  what,  in  responsive  sentences 
(284). 

6.  None  is  used  in  both  numbers ;  but  it  cannot  be  joined  to  a 
noun. 

Parsing. — Adjective  pronouns  are  parsed  by 
stating  their  class,  and  the  word  which  they 
qualify;  thus, 

"  My  book."  My  is  a  possessive  adjective  pronoun ;  and  qualifies 
"book." 

QUESTIONS. 

How  many  sorts  of  adjective  pronouns  are  there?  Name  them. 
Why  called  adjective  pronouns?  What  is  a  possessive  pronoun? 
Name  the  possessive  pronouns.  What  is  a  distributive  pronoun  ? 
Name  them — A  demonstrative  pronoun  ?  Name  them — An  indefi- 
nite pronoun?  Name  them.  In  what  are  possessive  pronouns  and 
the  possessive  case  of  personal  pronouns  the  same?  In  what  do 
they  differ?  Give  an  example  of  the  use  of  each.  How  is  "oM7i" 
used?  When  are  his  and  her  possessives? — when  personals?  In 
how  many  different  ways  is  '■'■that''''  used?  How  is  "wowe"  used? 
How  are  adjective  pronouns  parsed? 


PHONO  DNS. GENERAL   EXERCISES.  35 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  the  a^ective  pronouns,  and 
parse  them ;  the  nouns,  and  parse  them : 

My  book,  her  shoes,  your  horse,  their  father,  his  brother, 
every  hour,  that  table,  these  quills.  This  is  my  book ;  that 
book  is  yours.  Where  is  my  hat  ?  These  app^ts  are  good ; 
give  some  to  your  brothei-s.  I  will  give  one  to  each.  I 
have  given  them  all  away,  every  one.  Every  day  try  to 
do  good  to  some  person.  .  This  book  will  do  as  well  as  that 
one.  Every  boy  should  keep  his  own  books.  Do  good  to 
all  men — injury  to  none. 


Itesson.  t^*^— Exercises  on  Nouns,  Articles,  Ad- 
je'jtives,  and  Pronouns. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  the  articles,  and  parse 
them ; — tlie  nouns,  and  parse  them  ; — the  adjectives,  and  parse 
them ; — the  pronouns,  and  parse  them  : 

I  found  my  hat  upon  your  table ;  but  where  is  yours  ? 
Who  put  that  glove  in  my  cap?  Have  you  seen  the  book 
which  my  father  gave  to  me  ?  That  rod  of  youi*s  is  longer 
than  mine,  but  not  so  long  as  John's.  Those  trees  have  lost 
their  leaves.  Every  book  on  that  shelf  is  mine  ;  I  will  give 
you  a  list  of  them.  Keep  this  knife  for  my  sake ;  it  is  a 
good  one.  All  men  are  mortal ;  time  waits  for  no  one;  a 
wise  man  will  impix)ve  every  moment  to  some  useful  pur- 
pose. An  idle  man  will  come  to  poverty ;  but  he  that  is 
diligent  increases  his  store.  They  that  walk  with  the  wise 
shall  be  wise ;  but  a  companion  of  fools  shall  be  destroyed. 
Give  to  him  that  asketh  thee,  and  from  him  that  would 
borrow  of  thee,  turn  not  thou  away. 

[1.  Review  thoroughly  from  Lesson  10,  answering  promptly  and 
accurately  all  the  questions. 

2.  Review  from  the  beginning,  reciting  accurately  all  the  defini- 
tions and  rules,  and  answering  the  questions.  This  may  require  two 
or  three  recitations.] 


36       ^  INTRODUCTION  TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

liCSSon  1^,— Verbs. 

1.  A  Verb  is  a  word  or  words  used  to  express 
the  act,  being,  or  state  of  its  subject ;  as,  I  write  ; 
grass  i8  green  ;  the  letter  has  been  written, 

Tlie  subject  of  a  verb  is  that  person  or  thing  whose  act, 
being,  or  state  the  verb  expresses. 
In  relation  to  their  meaning  and  office  in  a  sentence 

2.  Verbs  are  of  three  kinds;  Transitive^  Intransitive^ 
and  Attributive, 

3.  A  Transitive  Verb  expresses  an  act  done 
by  one  person  or  thing  to  another ;  as,  James 
strikes  the  table  ;  The  table  is  struck  by  James. 

4.  An  Intransitive  Verb  expresses  the  being 
or  state  of  its  subject,  or  an  act  not  done  to 
another;  as,  I  am ;  he  sleeps ;  you  run. 

5.  An  Attributive  Verb  asserts  and  connects 
an  attribute  with  its  subject ;  as,  "  Snow  is  white'' 
(319). 

observations. 

1.  Transitive  verbs  are  those  which  express  an  act  that  passes  over 
from  the  actor  to  an  object  acted  upon ;  as,  He  loves  ics.  Here,  "  Me  " 
is  the  actor,  "  loves  "  expresses  the  act,  and  us,  the  object  loved,  or 
acted  upon.  The  same  thing,  can  be  expressed  by  another  form ; 
thus,  "  We  are  loved  by  him."  Of  these  two  forms  of  the  verb,  the 
first  is  called  the  active  voice,  and  the  second,  the  passive  voice.  (See 
Lesson  18.) 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  are  verbs  not  transitive,  whether  they  express 
action  or  not;  and  they  have  only  one  form,  namely,  that  of  the 
active  voice  ;  as,  I  am ;  you  walk ;  they  run.  Attributive  verbs  may 
be  corisidered  as  one  kind  of  intransitive  verba 

3.  Sometimes  a  verb,  usually  intransitive,  becomes  transitive  by 
being  followed  by  a  noun  of  a  similar  signification ;  as,  intransitive, 
"  I  rwri,-"  transitive,  "  I  run  a  race."  Also  by  the  addition  of  another 
word ;  as,  intransitive,  "  I  laugh ;"  transitive,  "  I  laugh  at  him." 


VEEBS.  87 

Some  verbs  are  used  transitively  and  intransitively ;  thus,  transir 
tive,  "  The  boy  reads  a  book  ;"  iutransiiive,  "  The  boy  reads  well." 

5.  Transitive,  intransitive,  and  attributive  verbs  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  sense,  as  follows : 

1st.  A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  (see  page  41)  requires  an 
object  after  it  to  complete  the  sense ;  as,  The  boy  studies  grammar. 
An  intransitive  verb  requires  no  object  after  it,  but  llie  sense  is 
complete  without  it ;  as.  He  sits  you  ride.  An  attributive  verb 
requires  after  it,  to  complete  the  sense,  some  word  or  plirase  not  an 
object,  to  limit  or  explain  the  subject ;  as,  ■•'  The  sua  is  bright:' 
2d.  In  the  use  of  the  transitive  verb,  there  are  always  three  things 
implied  ;  the  actor,  the  act,  and  the  object  acted  upon.  In  the  use 
of  the  intransitive,  there  are  only  two — the  subject  or  thing  spoken 
of,  and  the  state  or  action  ascribed  to  it.  In  the  use  of  the  attribu- 
tive verbs,  there  are  three — the  subject,  the  verb,  and  attribute. 

ILLUSTRATION. — The  verb  is  a  necessary  word  in  every  sen- 
tence. (See  Lesson  3?  )  Without  it,  we  cm  neither  affirm  nor  deny, 
nor  express  any  fact  or  thought.  As  we  wish  to  express  an  act  or 
state  in  a  variety  of  ways;  as,  present,  past,  future,  actual,  contin- 
gent, conditional,  &c.,  so  there  is  a  variety  of  forms  assumed  by  tho 
verb  in  order  to  express  these  things.  Two  important  things  must 
be  attended  to. 

1,  Distinguish  the  verb  from  every  other  part  of  speech.  This  can 
easily  be  done,  if  the  pupil  will  only  remember  that  every  word  that 
tells  us  what  a  person  or  thing  does,  or  what  is  done  to  a  person  or 
thing,  is  a  verb.  Thus,  when  we  say,  "  John  writes,"  we  know  that 
"  writes  "  is  a  verb,  because  it  tells  us  what  ''  John"  does. 

2.  Know  when  a  verb  is  transitive,  and  when  intransitive.  Now, 
when  the  verb  tells  what  one  person  or  thing  does  to  another,  or  what 
is  done  to  one  person  or  thing  by  another,  the  verb  is  transitive.  Thus, 
when  it  is  said,  "James  eais  appleS;"  we  know,  first,  that  "  eats  "  is 
a  verb,  because  it  tells  what  Jara^s  does;  and  secondly,  that  it  is 
transitive,  because  it  tells  what  James  does  to  the  apples. 

But  when  that  which  a  person  or  thins  does  is  not  done  to  another 
person  or  thing,  the  verb  is  intransitive.  Thus,  in  the  sentence 
"  James  runs,"  we  know  that  "  runs  "  is  a  verb,  because  it  tells  what 
James  ^65,-  and  that  it  is  intransitive,  because  what  James  does  is 
not  done  to  any  other  person  or  thing. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What  is  a  verb  ?  "What  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  ?  How  many 
kinds  of  verbs  are  there?    What  is  a  transitive  verb? — an  intransi- 


38  INTRODUCTION  TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

tive? — an  attributive ?  What  do  transitive  verbs  express?  In  hovr 
many  forms  can  a  transitive  verb  express  any  thing  ?  Wiiat  are  tliese 
forms  called ?  How  mauy  forms  have  iniransitive  verbs?  Does  a 
verb  usually  intransitive  ever  become  transitive  ?  How  ?  Are  some 
verbs  used  transitively  and  intransitively?  What  requires  an  object 
after  it  to  complete  the  sense?  What  requires  no  object  after  it ? 
Wliat  does  an  atrributive  verb  require  after  it  to  complete  the  s^nse? 
In  the  use  of  the  transitive,  what  three  things  are  implied?  What  in 
the  use  of  the  intransitive  verb?  What  in  the  use  of  the  attributive 
verb?  How  do  you  know  which  word  in  a  sentence  is  a  verb? 
How  do  you  know  whether  the  verb  is  transitive — ^intransitive — 
attributive  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercises,  point  out  the  verbs,  and  tell  how 
you  know  them  to  be  verbs ;  thus,  "  learn  "  is  a  verb,  because  it  tells 
us  what  **  boys  "  do ;  "  rides  "  is  a  verb,  because  it  tells  us  what  '*  a 
man  "  does,  &c. 

2.  Tell  which  verbs  are  transitive,  which  intransitive,  and  which 
attributive,  and  how  you  know  thera  to  be  such  ;  thus,  "  learn  "  is 
transitive,  because  it  tells  what  "boys"  do  to  lessons^  "rides"  is 
intransitive,  because  what  "  a  man  "  does  is  not  done  to  any  other 
person  or  thing;  "tastes"  is  attributive,  because  it  connects  the 
attributive  or  quality  '•  sour  "  with  the  subject  "  apple." 

Boys  learn  lessons.  A  man  rides.  The  apple  tastes 
sonr.  We  read  a  book.  My  dog  barks.  The  fire  burns. 
The  fire  burns  me.  He  took  their  apples.  You  saw  them. 
We  touched  it.  They  strike  her.  I  threw  a  stone  at  his 
"window.  They  killed  my  rabbit.  The  horses  eat  their 
corn.  The  cows  drink  water.  I  can  ride  well.  A  ride 
improves  the  health.  That  man  walks  fast.  A  long  walk 
tires  me.     I  love  her  and  you.     Sheep  are  animals. 

In  the  following  sentences,  it  t^kes  two,  and  sometimes  three  words 
to  make  the  verb ;  and  these  two  or  three  are  always  parsed  together 
as  one  word. 

I  will  water  the  garden.  James  can  write  a  letter.  You 
may  ride  on  my  horse.  Robert  will  give  a  book  to  you. 
Yes,  he  will  give  you  a  book.  You  must  light  the  candle. 
Your  father  has  sold  his  horse.  I  have  bought  him.  John 
will  brush  your  coat.  He  should  have  brushed  it  before. 
James  will  have  written  bis  letter  before  night.  He  may 
have  written  it  already. 


DIVISION   OF  VERBS.  89 

liesson  17. — Division  of  Verbs. 
[Review  tboraaghlj  the  preceding  Lesson.] 

1.  In  respect  oi  form,  verbs  are  divided  into 
Regular,  Irregular,  and  Defective. 

2.  A  Regular  Verb  is  one  that  forms  its  Past 
tense^  in  the  Indicative  mood,^  active  voice/  and 
its  Past  participle^  by  adding  ed  to  the  Present ; 
as,  Present,  act ;  Past,  acted;  Past  participle, 
acted. 

^'^ox  tense,  see  Lesa  20 — 'Less.  19 — ^Less.  18 — ^Less.  21. 

N.  B. — Verbs  ending  in  e  silent,  add  only  d ;  as,  love,  loved  (68). 
The  prouuncialion  of  some  forms  of  several  regular  verbs  is  different 
from  the  written  form;  ihus,  stop,  stopped,  is  pronounced  siopt ;  bar, 
barred,  hard ;  walk,  walked,  walkt,  etc. 

3.  An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  that  does  not 
form  its  Past  tense  in  the  Indicative  active,  and 
its  Past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  Present ; 
as,  Present,  write  ;  Past,  tvrote  ;  Past  participle, 
written.     (Lesson  29,  page  68.) 

A  Defective  Verb  is  one  in  which  some  of 
the  parts  are  wanting.  To  this  class  belong 
chiefly  Auxiliary  and  Impersonal  verbs,    (p.  73.) 

AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

-  The  Auxiliary,  or  helping  verbs,  are  those  by  the  help 
of  which  verbs  are  inflected.  They  are  the  following, 
which,  as  auxiliaries,  are  used  only  in  the  present  and  the 
past  tense  ;  viz. : 

Pres.  Do,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  am,  must 
Fast.    Did,    had,        should,     would,    might,    could,    was,     

The  verb  to  be  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  all  its  tenses. 

Be,  (Pres.  Ind.  am,)  do,  and  have,  are  also  principal  verbs. 

As  Principals — T  am  a  man;  I  do  the  work ;  I  have  a  horse. 
As  Auxiliaries — I  am  loved ;  I  do  six-'ak ;  I  have  heard. 


40  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  auxiliary  (or  helping)  verbs  are  so  called,  because,  by  their 
help,  the  verb  is  enabled  to  express  varieties  of  time  and  manner  of 
acting  or  being,  which  it  could  not  do  without  them.  The  auxiliary 
always  stands  before  its  verb,  and  the  two  are  regarded  iu  parsing  as 
07ie  toord ;  as,  I  will  write,  he  has  written,  we  may  imrite,  &c. 

2.  Of  the  auxiliaries,  shall  implies  duty  or  obligation;  will,  pur- 
pose or  resolution ;  may,  liberty ;  can,  ability.  The  past  tense  of 
these  verbs  is  should,  would,  might,  could ;  but  in  this  tense  these 
Terbs  express  the  idea  of  time  very  iudeOnitely. 

8.  In  affirmative  sentences,  will,  in  the  first  person,  intimates  res- 
olution and  promising;  as,  *'I  will  go;"  in  the  second  and  third,  it 
commonly  foretells ;  as,  "  You  will  be  happy." 

SImU,  iu  the  first  person,  only  foretells;  as,  "I  ahall  go  to-mor- 
row;"— iu  the  second  and  third,  it  promises,  commands,  or  threat- 
ens; as,  "Thou  aJuilt  not  steal"  (335—344). 

QUESTIONS. 

How  are  verbs  divided  in  respect  of  form  ?  What  is  a  regular 
verb  ? — an  irregular  verb  ? — a  defective  verb  ?  What  are  the  princi- 
pal defective  verbs?  Why  are  auxiliary  verbs  so  called?  What 
verbs  are  principal  verbs  as  well  as  auxiliary  ?  How  are  the  auxilia- 
ries shall  and  vMl  distinguished? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Put  the  following  regular  Verbs  into  the  Past  tense  and  Past 
participle : 

Fear,  love,  look,  hope,  show,  learn,  move,  wash,  clean, 
walk,  desire,  return,  oblige,  form,  force,  punish,  support, 
turn,  touch,  disturb,  place,  try,  deny,  cry,  delay. 

2.  Change  the  following  verbs  from  the  Past  tense  into  the 
Present : 

INIarked,  protected,  composed,  favored,  turned,  hated, 
mixed,  b(jlie\  ed,  wounded,  rushed,  preached,  hunted,  cruslied, 
wamed,  pleaded,  loved,  ended. 

3.  In  the  following  list,  tell  which  verbs  are  regular,  and  which  are 

ir«:'egular ;  and  why : 


INFLECTION    OF   VERBS. 


41 


Present, 

Past. 

Past  Participle. 

Spoil 

Go 

Take 

spoiled 

went 

took 

spoiled 

gone 

taken 

Write 

wrote 

written 

Hope 
Run 

hoped 
ran 

hoped 
run 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Spy 
Obey 

spied 
obeyed 

spied 
obeyed 

lit^sson  18. — Inflection  of  Verbs. 

[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons.] 

The  Accidents  of  Verbs  are  Voices,  Hoods, 
Tejises^  Numbers,  and  Persons,  See  Less.  3. 


OF   VOICE. 

Voice  is  a  particular  fonn  of  the  verb,  which 
shows  the  relation  of  the  subject,  or  thing  spo- 
ken of,  to  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb. 

Transitive  verbs  have  two  voices,  called  the 
Active  and  the  Passive. 

1.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject 
of  the  verb  as  acting  upon  some  object;  as, 
James  strikes  the  table. 

Here  the  verb   ^^ strikes,'^  in  the  active  voice,  indicates  what  its 
subject,  '■'■  James,''^  does  to  the  object,  table. 

2.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject 
of  the  verb  as  acted  upon  by  some  person  or 
thing ;  as,  The  table  is  struck  by  James,  See 
Lesson  28. 

Here  the  verb  ^-is  struck,'''^  in  the  passive  voice,  indicates  what  ia 
done  to  the  subject,  '■' table^^''  by  James. 


42  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GEAMMAB. 

3.  Intransitive  verbs  have  the  form  of  the 
active  voice.  A  few  admit  a  passive  form,  but 
not  a  passive  sense  ;  thus,  I  am  come,  means 
the  same  thing  as,  I  have  come. 

4.  When  a  verb,  usually  intransitive,  is 
made  transitive  [Lesson  16,  Obs.  3],  it  is  then 
capable  of  a  passive  voice;  as,  "My  race  is 
run."    "  He  is  laughed  at  by  me." 

ILLUSTRATION. — Both  the  active  and  the  passive  voice  express 
precisely  the  same  act,  but  each  in  a  different  way.  With  the  active 
voice,  the  subject,  that  is,  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  does  the 
act,  or  is  active ;  with  the  passive  voice,  the  subject  is  acted  upon,  or 
is  passive.  The  words  active  and  passive  then  strictly  belong  to  the 
subject,  but  are  properly  used  to  distinguish  those  voices  or  forms  of 
the  verb  which  show  that  the  subject  acts,  or  is  acted  upon :  that  is, 
the  form  of  the  verb  which  represents  its  subject  as  active,  is  called 
the  Actioe  \x)ice  ;  and  that  which  represents  its  subject  as  passive,  is 
called  the  Passive  voice. 

Remembering,  then,  that  the  subject  or  nominative  of  a  verb  is 
the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  when,  in  any  sentence,  we  see  that 
that  subject  acts,  we  know  that  the  verb  is  in  the  active  voice  ;  thus, 
when  we  say,  "  Cain  killed  Abel,"  we  see  that  *'  Cain,"  the  person 
spoken  of,  is  represented  as  acting,  and  therefore  ^^ killed"  is  in  the 
active  voice.  Again,  when  we  say,  "  Abel  was  killed  by  Cain,"  the 
subject  or  thing  spoicon  of  is  Abel;  it  is  represented  as  acted  upon 
and  therefore  "  was  killed  "  is  in  the  passive  voice* 

QUESTIONS. 

What  belongs  to  the  inflection  of  verbs  ?  Wliat  is  meant  by  voice  / 
How  many  voices  has  the  transitive  verb  in  English  ?  What  are 
they?  How  does  the  active  voice  represent  its  subject?  How  does 
tlie  passive  voice  represent  it?  What  voice  have  intransitive  verbs  ? 
Have  they  ever  a  passive  form?  Have  they  ever  a  passive  sense ? 
When  intransitive  verbs  are  made  transitive,  can  they  be  used  in  the 
passive  voice  ? 

EXERCISES. 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  the  pupil  may  be  questioned, 
as  on  the  first,  in  the  ibllowing  manner :  Who  is  the  person  spoken 
of  in  this  sentence?  Ans. — John.  What  is  said  of  Jolin  ?  Ans. — • 
He  studies.  Does  the  word  studies  represent  John  as  acting,  or  as 
acted  upon?    Ans. — As  acting.     In  what  voice  then  is  "studies?'* 


MOODS.  43 

Ans. — Active  voice.  Change  the  sentence  so  as  to  make  "gram- 
mar" t!ie  tlung  spoken  of,  and  express  the  same  meainng.  Ans. — ' 
"Grammar  is  studied  by  John."  Analyze  this  sentence  in  the  same 
ftay  as  the  other. 

John  studies  grammar.  Cain  slew  Abel.  Noah  built 
the  ark.  The  temple  was  built  by  Solomon.  Columbus 
discovered  America.  Pride  ruins  thousands.  Most  men 
are  governed  by  custom.     I  have  written  a  letter.  » 


liesson  19. — Moods, 

[Review  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

Mood  is  the  7node  or  maimer  of  expressing 
the  signification  of  the  verb. 

Yerbs  have  six  moods  ;  namely,  the  Indicative^ 
Potential^  Subjunctive^  Imperative,  Infinitive,  and 
Participial, 

1.  The  Indicative  mood  declares  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb  simply,  and  without 
limitation;  as,  He  loves;  He  is  loved. 

2.  The  Potential  mood  declares,  not  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  but  only  \i^  possibility ; 
or  the  liberty,  power,  will,  or  oblujation,  of  the 
subject  with  respect  to  it ;  as, 

Tlie  wind  may  blow  ;  We  may  walk  or  ride ;     I  ca7i  swim ;  He 
would  not  stay;  You  should  obey  your  parents. 

3.  The  Subjunctive  mood  represents  the  fact 
expressed  by  the  verb,  not  as  actual,  but  as 
conditional,  desirable,  or  contingent;  as, 

"  If  he  go  to  New  York  I  will  go  with  him." — 0  that  men  were 
wisel" 
This  mood  is  subjoined  to  another  verb,  and  dependent  on  it. 

4.  The  Imperative  mood  commands,  exhorts, 
entreats,  or  permits  ;  as, 


44  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL    GltAMMAK. 

JDo  this ;  Bememher  thy  Creator ;  Hear,  0  my  people ;  Go  thy  way 
for  this  time. 

5.  The  Infinitive  mood  expresses  the  mean- 
ing of  the  verb  in  a  general  manner,  without  any 
distinction  of  person  or  number,  and  commonly 
has  to  before  it;  as,  To  love. 

6.  The  Participial  mood  is  used  to  denote 
action  or  state.  1.  As  continuing  or  incom- 
plete ;  as,  "  I  am  writing T  2.  As  complete  or 
finished ;  as,  "  The  letter  is  written" 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  form  of  the  subjunctive  mood  differs  from  that  of  the  indica- 
tive only  in  the  second  and  the  third  person  singular  of  the  present 
tense.     The  verb  "  to  he  "  differs  also  in  the  past  tense. 

2.  The  imperative  mood,  strictly  speaking,  has  only  the  second 
person,  singular  and  plural;  because,  in  commanding,  exhorting,  &c., 
the  language  of  address  is  always  used ;  thus,  *'  Let  him  love,"  is 
equivalent  to  "  Let  thou  him  love ;"  where  Let  is  the  proper  impera- 
tive, and  love  the  infinitive  governed  by  it.     [See  Lesson  66,  1,  2.] 

ILLUSTRATION. — If  we  regard  the  mode  or  manner  in  which  an 
action  presents  itself  to  our  minds,  we  may  consider  it  either  as  an 
actual  reality,  or  as  a  possibility,  or  as  a  contingency,  or  as  a  com- 
mand, or  as  sometliing  altogether  indefinite.  The  expression  of  these 
difieront  circumstances  gives  rise  to  wliat  are  called  moods.  Thus  we 
may  say,  he  goes,  or  he  may  go,  or  if  he  go,  or  go,  or  to  go,  or  going. 
These  six  forms  of  expression  indicate  the  si:X  moods  as  given  above. 

QUESTIONS. — What  is  mood  ?  How  many  moods  are  there  ? 
What  does  the  Indicative  mood  declare? — the  Potential?  What 
does  the  Subjunctive  mood  represent  ?  What  does  the  Imperative 
mood  do?  Wliat  does  the  Infinitive  mood  express?  How  is  the 
Participial  mood  used  ?  In  what  parts  does  the  Subjunctive  differ 
from  the  Indicative  ?     How  many  persons  has  the  Imperative  mood  ? 


Jjesson  20. — Tenses,  or  Distinction  of  Time, 
[Review  the  two  preceding  Lessons.] 

Tenses  are  certain  forms  of  the  verb,  which 
serve  to  point  out  the  distinctions  of  time. 


TENSES,    OR    DISTINCTIONS    OF    TIME.  45 

Time  is  naturally  divided  into  Present.,  Past,  and  Future  ;  and  an 
action  may  be  represented,  either  as  incomplete  and  continuing,  or, 
as  completed  at  the  time  spoken  of.  This  gives  rise  to  six  tenses, 
only  two  of  which  are  expressed  in  English  by  a  distinct  form  of 
the  verb.  The  others  are  formed  by  the  aid  of  auxiliary  verbs; 
thus, 

p  (  Action  continuin g ;  as,  I  love,  I  do  love,  I  am  loving. 

.  '     \  Action  coinpleted ;  as,  I  have  loved. 

p  (  Action  continuing ;  as,  I  loved,  I  did  love,  I  was  loving. 

{  Action  completed ;  as,  I  had  loved. 
p         w       i  -^^^^^^^  continuing ;  as,  I  shall  or  will  love. 
\  Action  completed ;  as,  I  shall  have  loved. 

The  tenses  in  English  are  six;  namely,  the 
Present,  the  Present-perfect^  the  Past,  the  Pastr 
perfect,  the  Future,  and  the  Future-perfect 

TENSES    OF   THE   INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

The  Indicative  mood  has  all  the  six  tenses; 
they  are  used  as  follows: 

1.  The  Present  tense  expresses  what  is 
going  on  at  the  present  time;  as,  I  love  you. 
1  am  loved. 

2.  The  Present-perfect  tense  represents  an 
action  or  event  as  completed  at  the  present 
time;  or  in  a  period  of  which  the  present 
forms  a  part;  as,  "John  ha^  cut  his  finger."  "I 
have  sold  my  horse."  "I  have  done  nothing 
this  week." 

3.  The  Past  tense  expresses  what  took  place 
m  past  time;  as,  "God  said,  let  there  be  light;" 
"The  ship  sailed  when  the  mail  annved." 

4.  The  Past-perfect  tense  represents  an 
action  or  event  as  completed  at  or  before  a 
certain  past  time ;  as,  ^  I  had  loalked  six  miles 

^^   OF  T3P. 


46  INTRODUCTION   TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

that   day;"  "All  the  judges  had  taken   their 
places  before  Sir  Roger  came." 

5.  The  Future  tense  expresses  what  will 
take  place  in  future  time;  as,  "1  will  see  you 
again,  and  your  hearts  shall  rejoice." 

6.  The  Future-perfect  intimates  that  an 
action  or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before 
a  certain  time,  yet  future;  as,  "I  shall  have 
got  my  lesson  before  ten  o'clock  to-morrow." 

Note.  The  tenses  inflected  without  an  auxiliary,  are  called  Sim- 
ple tenses ;  those  with  an  auxiliary,  are  called  Compound  tenses.         / 

TENSES    OP   THE    OTHER   MOODS./^  ^      vH^t/ 

7.  The  Potential  mood  has  four  tenses;  the 
Present,  the  Presentrperfecty  the  Past,  and  the 
Past-perfect. 

The  tenses  in  this  mood  indicate  the  time,  not  of  the  act  expressed 
by  the  verb,  but  of  the  liberty,  poioer,  will,  or  obligation,  expressed 
by  the  auxiliary,  or  sign  of  the  tense  ;  thus,  "I  may  write,"  does  not 
express  the  act  of  imting  as  present,  but  only  the  liberty  to  write, 
expressed  by  the  auxiliary  may. 

Hence  the  time  expressed  by  the  verb  in  this  mood  is  less  definite, 
and  depends  not  so  much  on  the  tense  as  on  other  words  with  which 
it  stands  connected.  This  is  the  case  especially  with  the  Past  tense. 
[See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  428-432.] 

8.  The  Subjunctive  mood,  in  its  proper  form, 
has  only  the  present  tense.  The  verb  to  he 
has  the  present  and  the  past.  The  indicative 
mood  is  also  used  as  the  Subjunctive.  Les- 
son 65. 

9.  The  Imperative  mood  may  always  be  re- 
garded as  present;  i.  e.  the  command,  &c.,  is 
present,  though  the  doing  of  the  act  com- 
manded is  future. 


TENSES,    OR   DISTli^CriONS   OF   TIME.  47 

10.  The  Infinitive  mood  has  two  tenses;  the 
Present  and  the  Perfect. 

11.  The  Participial  mood  has  three  tenses; 
the  Present^  the  Past,  and  the  Perfect;  as, 
Loving,  loved,  having  loved.     (See  Lesson  21.) 

[See  Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar,  455]. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  TENSES. 

1.  Th«  Present  tense  is  used  to  express,  1st — the  simple  existence 
of  the  fact;  as,  "He  speaks"  2d — what  is  habitual  or  always  true; 
as,  "  He  takes  snuff."  3d — fn  historical  narration,  it  is  used  for  the 
past;  as,  "Caesar  leaves  Gaul,"  for  "Caesar  left  Gaul." 

2.  Th€  Present-perfect  is  used,  1st — To  express  what  has  taken 
place  at  the  present  time,  or  in  a  period  of  time  of  which  the  present 
forms  a  part;  as,  "My  father  has  arrived."  2d — To  express  an  act 
or  state  continued  through  a  period  of  time  reaching  to,  and  includ- 
ing the  present;  as,  "He^as  [now]  studied  six  months."  3d — To 
express  an  act  long  since  completed,  when  the  reference  is  not  to 
the  act  of  finishing,  but  to  the  thing  finished  as  still  existing ;  as, 
"  Milton  has  written  poems." 

3.  The  time  indicated  by  the  Past  tense  is  regarded  as  entirely 
past,  however  near;  as,  '■'■1  saw  him  a  moment  ago."  It  is  also  used 
to  express  what  was  customary  in  past  time;  as,  "She  attended 
church  regularly." 

4.  The  Past  tenses  of  the  Potential,  and  the  Subjunctive  mood,  are 
less  definite  in  regard  to  time,  than  the  same  tenses  in  the  Indicative. 

•  QUESTIONS. 

What  are-  tenses?  How  is  time  naturally  divided?  In  each  of 
these,  how  may  an  action  or  state  be  represented?  How  many 
tenses  are  the^e  in  the  English  verb  ?  How  many  has  the  Indicative 
mood  ?  What  are  they  ?  What  does  ttie  Present  tense  express  ? — 
the  Past? — the  Future?  What  does  the  Present- perfect  tense  repre- 
sent ? — the  Past-perfect  ?  What  does  the  Future-perfect  tense  inti- 
mate? 

How  many  tenses  has  the  Potential  mood  ? — the  Subjunctive  ? — 
the  Imperative  ? — the  Infinitive  ?— the  Participial  ?  In  what  different 
wajB  is  the  Present  tense  used  ? — ^the  Present-perfect ?--the  Past' 


48  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

licsson  31« — Participles, 

[Review  four  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  promptly  and  correctly 
all  the  questions.] 

A  Participle  is  a  word  which,  as  a  verb,  ex- 
presses an  action  or  state,  and,  as  an  adjective, 
qualifies  a  noun  or  substantive ;  as, 

There  is  a  boy  amusing  himself;  Devoted  to  study,  he  soon  became 
learned ;  Having  finished  our  task,  we  may  play. 

Verbs  have  three  participles;  the  Present, 
the  Past,  and  the  Perfect ;  as.  Loving,  loved, 
having  loved; — Being  loved,  loved,  having  been 
loved. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  Present  Participle  active  ends  always  in  ing,  and  has  an 
active  signification  ;  as,  James  is  building  a  house.  In  many  verbs, 
however,  it  has  also  a  passive  signification ;  as,  The  house  was  build- 
ing, when  the  wall  fell.    [See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  456-457]. 

2.  The  Fast  Participle  has  the  same  form  in  both  voices.  In  the 
active  voice,  its  signification  is  active ;  as,  He  has  concealed  a  dagger 
under  his  cloak ; — In  the  passive  voice,  its  signification  is  passive ; 
as,  He  has  a  dagger  concealed  under  his  cloak.  See  Annal.  Gr.  (459). 

8.  The  Perfect  Participle  is  always  compound,  and  has  an  active 
signification  in  the  active  voice,  and  a  passive  signification  in  the 
passive  voice. 

4,  The  participle  in  -ing  is  often  used  as  a  verbal  or  participial 
noun,  having  the  nominative  and  the  obje#tive  case,  but  not  the  pos- 
eessive.  In  this  character,  the  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  may 
still  retain  the  government  of  the  verb,  or  it  may  be  divested  of  it 
by  inserting  an  article  before  it,  and  the  preposition  o/ after  it;  as,  Ii 
keeping  his  commandments,-  or,  In  the  keeping  of  his  eommandmonta 
there  is  a  great  reward.   (462), 

5.  Some  participles,  laying  aside  the  idea  of  time,  and  eimply  qual 
ifying  a  noun,  become  participial  adjectives,  and  as  such  admit  of 
comparison;  as.  An  amusing — a  more  amusing — a  most  amu»in§ 
storr.     A  most  devoted  friend. 


NUMBER   AND   PERSON.  49 


QUESTIONS. 

Wliat  is  a  participle?  How  many  participles  are  there?  Has  the 
participle  in  ing  ever  a  passive  siguificatiou  ?  Give  an  example. 
How  is  the  perfect  participle  used?  Describe  the  use  of  the  present 
participle  as  a  verbal  noun.  How  do  participles  become  adjectives? 
What  are  such  adjectives  usually  called?  Do  they  admit  of  com- 
parison ? 

[Before  proceeding  to  the  next  Lesson,  review  thofOtighly  from 
the  begiauing  in  two  or  three  recitations.] 


Ijessou  93. — Number  and  Person, 

[Review  the  three  preceding  Lessons,  and  answer  the  questions.] 

1.  Every  tense  of  the  verb,  except  in  the 
Infinitive  mood,  has  two  Numbers,  the  Singu- 
lar and  the  Plural;  and  each  of  these  has  three 
Persons,  except  in  the  Imperative,  which  has 
only  the  Second. 

2.  The  First  person  asserts  of  the  pei'son 
speaking;  its  subject  is  always  /  in  the  singu- 
lar, and  loe  in  the  plural;  as,  /  write;  loe 
write. 

3.  The  Second  person  asserts  of  the  person 
spoken  to;  its  subject  is  always  thou  in  the 
singular,  and  ye  or  you  in  the  plural;  as,  Thou 
writest;  ye  or  yoit  write. 

4.  The  Third  person  asserts  of  the  person 
or  thing  spoken  of;  its  subject  is  any  noun,  or 
the  pronoun  he,  she,  it,  or  they,  used  instead  of 
it;  as,  John  reads;  he  walks;  they  rim. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

1.  The  forms  of  the  verb  in  the  first,  second,  and  tliird  persona 
plural,  are  always  like  the  first  person  singular. 


60  INTRODUCTION  TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAK. 

2  The  second  person  singular  of  the  present  indicative  active,  ends 
in  si  or  est ;  as,  thou  lovest ;  thou  readest ; — of  the  past,  generally  in 
si ;  as,  thou  lovedst.  All  the  other  persons  in  both  numbers  in  this 
tense  are  alike. 

3.  Verbs  that  end  in  5,  sh,  ch,  z,  x,  or  o,  form  the  third  person  sin- 
gular of  the  present  indicative  active,  by  adding  es ;  as,  He  teaches. 
All  others  add  s :  as,  he  loves, — reads. 

4.  An  ancient  form,  now  little  used  except  in  solemn  address,  has 
the  ending  eth  in  the  third  person  singular;  as,  teskoheth,  rtiadeth, 
doeth,  6sdth. 

5.  Verbs  ending  in  y  with  a  consonant  before  it,  change  y  into  i 
before  the  terminations  est,  es,  eth,  ed ;  but  not  before  ing ;  as,  try, 
triest,  tries,  trieih,  tried,  trying 

6.  The  Infinite  mood,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence,  sometimes  ex- 
presses that  of  which  a  person  speaks,  and  is  therefore  the  subject  of 
the  verb.  When  it  does  so  it  is  always  regarded  as  the  third  person, 
and  a  pronoun  standing  instead  of  it  is  in  the  neuter  gender ;  as,  To 
play  is  pleasant;  it  promotes  health, — [An.  and  Pr.  Gr.,  8G9.] 

QUESTIOXS. 

How  many  numbers  has  each  tense  ?  What  mood  has  no  dis- 
tinction of  number  or  pcr«<on  ?  How  many  persons  are  in  each 
number  ?  W^hat  mood  has  only  the  second  person '?  Of  wUoni  does 
the  first  person  assert  ?  What  is  its  subject  in  the  singular  ? — in  the 
plural  ?  Of  whom  docs  the  second  person  assert  ?  What  is  its  sub- 
ject in  the  shigular?— in  the  plural?  Of  whom  or  what  docs  the 
third  person  assert?  What  is  its  subject?  What  parts  in  each 
tense  are  alike?  How  is  the  second  person  singular  formed  in  the 
present  indicative? — in  the  past  tense?  When  is  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  present  indicative  formed  by  adding  es,  or  eth^-^^ 
When  by  adding  a,  or  tk,  or  eth'^  How  is  it  formed  when  the  verb 
euds  iu  y  after  a  cousouaut  ? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Tell  the  second  person  singular  of  the  following  verbs,  and  how 
it  is  formed. 

2.  Tell  the  third  person,  and  how  it  is  formed. 

3.  Prefix  thou  to  each  verb,  when  put  in  the  second  person  singu* 
lar ;  as,  "  thou  tellest ; "  and  he  to  each,  when  put  in  the  third ;  as, 
"he  tells." 

Tell,  speak,  sleep,  walk,  read,  learn,  smell,  see,  hear, 


CONJUGATION   OF   VERBS.  51 

taste,  touch,  handle^  write,  pay,  eat,  drink,  warm,  teach,  go, 
do,  fill,  play,  stand,  sell,  buy,  study,  copy. 

4.  In  the  following  words,  tell  which  are  in  the  first  person,  and 
why; — in  the  second,  and  why; — in  the  third,  and  why. 

5.  Prefix  to  each  verb,  in  the  following  list,  the  pronoun  of  the 
same  person  and  number  as  the  verb  :  as,  /  love,  thou  lovest,  &c. 

Love,  lovest,  loves,  runs,  runnest,  sleep,  teach,  preaches, 
teachest,  writes,  write,  eats,  goes,  goest,  go,  tell,  teaches, 
speaks,  read,  readest,  sews,  pay,  look,  walks,  jump,  hop, 
skip,  laughs,  sing,  cry,  criest,  study,  studies. 


liesson  23. —  Conjugation  of  Verbs, 

[The  pupil  should  be  thoroughly  drilled  in  this  Lesson,  till  he  ia 
able  to  tell  every  part  at  once  and  correctly — and  to  give  promptly 
any  part  of  the  verb  that  may  be  required.] 

1.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular 
combination  and  arrangement  of  its  several 
moods^  tenses,  numbers,  and  persons. 

2.  In  the  active  voice,  most  verbs  have  two 
forms;  the  Common;  as,  I  read;  and  the 
Progressive;  as,  I  am  reading.  See  Lesson 
27,  note. 

Besides  these,  in  the  present  and  the  past  indicative  active,  there 
is  a  third  form  called  the  Emphatic  ;  as,  I  rfo  read,  I  did  read.  The 
other  tenses,  and  also  the  progressive  and  the  passive  form,  are  ren- 
dered emphatic  by  placing  a  greater  stress  of  voice  on  the  first  aux- 
iliary ;  as,  1  have  read — I  am  reading — it  is  read. 

3.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are  the  Present  Tense  Indicativf" 
Mood,  the  Present  Participle,  the  Past  Teme  Ind.,  and  Past  Participle. 

In  parsing,  the  mentioning  of  these  parts  is  called  conjugating  the 
verb. 

Present.  Present  Part.        Past.  Past  Part. 

Active,        Love,  Loving,  Loved,  Loved. 

Passive,      Am  loved,      Being  loved,         Was  loved,     Been  loved. 


62  INTEODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 


The  Verb  TO  BE. 

The  intransitive  irregular  verb  To  Be  is  in- 
flected through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  as 
follows  : 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present,  am.      Present  Part.,  being.      Past,  was.      Past  Part,  been. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singidar.  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  You  are. 

3.  He  is.  3.  They  are. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSS. 

Sign,  Jiave. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  Thou  liast  been,  2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been. 

PAST   TENSE. 

1.  I  was.  1.  We  were. 

2.  Thou  wast  2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  been.  1*.  We  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  8.  They  had  been. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  will. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be.  ].  We  shall  be. 

2.  Thofi  Shalt  be.  2.  You  shall  be. 

3.  He  shall  be.  S.  They  shall  be. 

FUTURE-PERFECT   TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  will  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  shall  have  been.  2.  You  shall  have  been. 

3.  He  shall  have  been.  3    They  shall  have  been. 


THE    VERB    TO    BE.  53 


POTENTIAL    MOOD. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

SignSf  may^  can^  vmst. — Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

T.  I  may  be.  1.  We  may  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  be.  2.  You  may  be. 

3.  He  may  be.  3.  They  may  be. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Sgns,  tnaj/  have,  can  luvXy  or  iiutsi  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been.  1.  We  may  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been.  2.  You  may  have  been. 

3.  He  may  have  been.  3.  They  may  have  been. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Signs,  mighty  andd^  vx>uld^  sJioidd. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  be.  1.  We  might  be. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be.  2.  You  might  be. 

3.  He  might  be.  ,  3.  They  might  be. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  might  have^  eotdd  Jiave,  would  have^  should  have. — Inflect  with 
each. 

1.  I  might  have  been.  1.  We  might  have  been.  * 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been.  2.  You  might  have  been. 

3.  He  might  have  been.  3.  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE  (  Subjuuctive  fwrm). 
Singular.  Phiral. 

1.  If  I  be.  1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  thou  be.  2.  If  you  be. 

3.  if  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 

PAST  TENSE  ( Svbjunctlve  farm).^ 

1.  If  I  were.  1.  jf  we  were. 

2.  If  thou  were  or  wert.  2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  8.  If  they  were. 


*  The  indicaiive  form  in  all  the  tenses  is  the  same  as  the  indicative 
with  a  conjunction  prefixed^  thus,  If  1  am,  If  I h aire  been,  If  Iwas^ 
If  I  had  ImeUy  If  I  sJiall  or  will  be,  If  I  shall  have  been. 


54  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Singidar.  Plural. 

2.  Be,  or  be  thou.  2.  Be,  or  be  ye  or  you, 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE.  PERFECT  TENSE. 

:/        To  be.  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present,  Being.  Past,  Been.  Perfect,  Having  been. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Let  the  pupU  tell  the  tense,  mood,  person,  and  number  of  the 
following  words— parts  of  the  verb  to  be ;  thus,  "  Am,"  present,  in- 
dicative, first  person,  singular. 

2.  Let  him  parse  the  same  words ;  thus,  "Am"  is  a  verb,  intransi- 
tive,  irregular ;  am,  was,  been;  in  the  present,  indicative,  first  person, 
singular. 

Am,  is,  art,  wast,  I  was,  they  were,  we  are,  hast  been, 
has  been,  we  have  been,  hadst  been,  we  had  been,  you  have 
been,  she  has  been,  we  were,  they  had  been. 

I  shall  be,  shalt  be,  we  will  be,  thou  wilt  l)e,  they  shall 
be,  it  will  be,  thou  wilt  have  been,  we  have  been,  they  will 
have  been,  we  shall  have  been,  am,  it  is. 

I  can  be,  mayst  be,  canst  be,  she  may  be,  you  may  be, 
he  must  be,  they  should  be,  mightst.  be,  he  would  be,  it 
could  be,  wouldst  be,  you  could  be,  he  may  have  been, 
wast. 

We  may  have  been,  mayst  have  been,  they  may  have 
been,  I  might  have  been,  you  should  have  been,  wouldst 
have  been ;  (if )  thou  be,  we  be,  he  be,  thou  wert,  we  were. 

Be  thou,  be,  to  be,  being,  to  have  been,  if  I  be,  be  ye, 
been,  having  been,  if  we  be,  if  they  be,  to  be. 

3.  In  the  followin";  sentences,  parse  the  words  in  order;  thus, 
"57iow"  is  a  noun,  neuter,  the  nominative  singular,  because  the  sub- 
ject of  "i«."  "/s"is  a  verb  attributive  irregular;  am.  was,  been;  m 
the  present,  indicative,  third  person,  singular.  "  W/dte  "  is  an  adjec- 
tive, qualifies  snow;  compared,  white,  w/iiler,  whitest. 


THE    VERB    TO    LOVE.  55 

Snow  is  white;  he  was  a  good  man;  we  have  been 
younger ;  she  has  been  happy ;  it  had  been  late ;  we  are 
old ;  you  will  be  wise ;  it  will  be  time ;  if  they  be  thine  j  be 
cautious ;  be  heedful  youth ;  we  may  be  rich. 


licsson  24. —  Tlie   Verb  to  love. 

*  The  regular  verb  to  love,  in  the  common 
form,  is  inflected  through  all  its  moods  and 
tenseS;  as  follows : 

ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Present,  love.    PreNni  Fart,  loving.    Past,  loved.    Past  Part.,  loved. 

INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

FRESEXT   TENSE.* 

Singular.  Phiral. 

1.  I  love.  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  You  love. 

3.  He  loves  {or  loveth).  3.  They  love. 

PBESEKT-PERFECT  TENS*. 

Sign,  have. 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  have  lovet?- 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  You  have  loved. 

3.  He  has  or  hath  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

PASX  TENSE-t 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst.  2.  You  loved. 

3.  He  loved.  3.  They  loved. 

*  PRESENT  TENSE.  {Emphatic  form.) 

1.  I  do  love.  1.  We  do  love. 

2.  Thou  dost  love.  2.  You  do  love. 

3.  He  does  or  doth  love.  3.  They  do  love. 

t  PAST  TENSE.  {Emphatic form.) 

1.  I  did  love.  1.  We  did  love. 

2.  Thou  didst  love.  2.  You  did  love- 

3.  He  did  love.  3.  They  did  lovei 


56  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAIl 

PAST-PERFECT   TENSE. 

Sigu,    had. 

1.  I  had  lored.  1.  We  had  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved.         2.  You  had  loved. 

3.  He  had  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Signs,  shallj  will. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  love.  1.  We  shall  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  love.  2.  You  shall  love. 

3.  He  shaU  love.  3.  They  shall  love. 

FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  will  have. — Inflect  with  eacll^ 

1.  I  shall  have  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  loved.  2.  You  shall  have  loved, 
8.  He  shall  have  loved.  8.  They  shall  have  loved, 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Signs,  maj/j  cati,  must. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  love.  1.  We  may  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  love.  2.  You  may  love. 

3.  He  may  love.  3.  They  may  love. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  wiay  have,  can  have*  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may^^have  loved.  1.  We  may  hiive  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved.  2.  You  may  have  loved. 
S.  He  may  have  loved.                    3.  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  love.  1.  We  might  love. 

2.  Thou  mightst  love.  2.  You  might  love. 

3.  He  might  love.  .  3.  They  might  love. 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE.  • 

Signs,  might  have,  could  have,  would  have,  should  /tave.— Inflect  with 
each. 

1.  I  might  have  lovea.  1.  We  might  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved.  2.  You  might  have  loved. 
8.  He  might  have  loved.  3.  They  might  have  loved. 

*  Oafi  have  is  not  used  in  aflBirmative  sentences. 


THE   VERB    TO    LOVE.  57 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MOOD. 
PKESKNT  TENSE  {SiAJunctiveform),* 

1.  If  I  \o\c.  1.  V/'we  love. 

2.  If  thou  love.  2.  Jf  you  love. 

3.  ^  he  love.  3.^  they  love. 

PRESENT  TENSE  {Indicative form,) 

1.  7/*Ilove.  l.IfwQ  love. 

2.  //■  thou  lovest.  2.  7/"  you  love. 

3.  If  he  loves  (o>*  loveth).  3.  If  they  love.. 

PRESENT-PERFECT   TENSK. 

l.Ifl  have  loved.  1.  If^fe  have  loved. 

2.  //'  thou  hast  loved.  2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  If  he  has  or  bath  loved.  3.  If  they  have  loved. 

PAST  TENSE. 

1.  7/"  I  loved.  1.  i/*  we  loved. 

2.  7/"  thou  lovedst.  2.  If  you  loved. 
3.^  he  loved.                                 3.  i)r  they  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  //"I  had  loved.  1.  i)^ we  had  loved. 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved.  2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  If  he  had  loved.  3.  If  they  had  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

l.Ifl  shall  or  will  love.  l.Ifwe  shall  or  will  love. 

f     

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved.      1.  If  we  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2.  7/"  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved.  2.  7j^  you  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved.    3.  Jf  they  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


2.  j^  thou  shait  or  wilt  love.  2.  If  yon  shall  or  will  love. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  love.  3.  ^they  shall  or  will  love. 


*  The  Present  subjunctive  is  here  given  in  two  forms  :  1st.  in  the 
subjunctive  or  elliptical  form,  used  when  both  contingency  and  futu- 
rity are  implied ;  and  2d.  the  indicative  form,  used  when  contin- 
gency only,  and  not  futurity  is  implied.  In  parsing,  the  latter  should 
be  called  the  "  indicative  used  suhjunctively,"  being  the  indicative 
mood  in  form,  and  rendered  subjunctive  only  by  the  conjunction  pre- 
fixed.    This  is  true  also  of  the  other  tenses  in  this  mood. 

The  emphatic  forms  of  the  present  are,  If  I  do  love,  if  thou  da 
love^  if  he  do  love,  etc.  ;  of  the  past,  If  I  did  love,  if  thou  didst  love, 
etc.,  as  in  the  indicative. 


I. 


58  INTRODUCTION    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 


IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Common  form.      2.  Love,  or  love  thou.     2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  yon 
Emphatic  fontt.    2.  Do  thou  love.  2.  Do  ye  or  you  Icve, 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 
Present,  To  love.  Perfect,  to  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Loving.         Past,  Loved.         Perfect,  Having  loved 

Parsing. — A  verb  is  parsed  by  stating  its 
toirZ  (i.  e., whether  transitive  or  intransitive); 
its  ybrm,  (whether  regular  or  irregular) ;  conju- 
gating it,  and  telling  in  what  tense^  moody  voice, 
number  aiidpe7^son,  it  is  found;  also  its  subject j 
thus, 

"He  loves."  Loves  is  a  verb,  transitive,  regular;  love,  lotted, 
loved ;  found  in  the  present,  indicative,  active  ;  third  person,  singu- 
lar ;  and  affirms  of  its  subject,  he. 

N.  B.  It  is  important  in  parsing  to  state  every  thing  belonging  to 
a  word  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  and  always  in  the  sa)H€  order, 

QUESTIOXS. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ?  How  is  a  verb  conjugated  ? 
Conjugate  the  verb  love  in  the  active  voice.  Say  the  indicative 
present — past — future — the  present-perfect — the  past-perfect — fu- 
ture-perfect. Say  the  first  person  singular,  in  each  tense — the 
second — the  third — the  first  person  plural — the  second — the  third. 
Say  the  emphatic  form,  in  the  present — in  the  past.  What  are  the 
signs  (or  auxiliaries)  of  the  present-perfect  ? — the  past-perfect  ?  — the 
future  ? — the  future-perfect? — the  subjunctive  present  ? — present-per- 
fect f — past?— past-perfect?  &c.     What  is  the  sign  of  the  infinitive? 

EXERCISE  L 

1.  Go  over  the  following   Exercise,  and  tell  the  tense,  mood,  and 

voice  of  each  verb ;  thus,  "  He  loves,''''  present,  indicative,  active, 

2.  Go  over  it  again,  and  tell  the  person  and  number ,  thus,  iore&. 

third  person,  singular. 


THE    VERB    TO    LOVE,  59 

8.  Go  over  it  again,  and  join  those  together ;  and  so  tell  the  tense, 
mood,  voice,  number,  and  person  ;  and  always  in  this  order ;  as, 
loves,  present,  indicative,  active,  third  person,  singular. 

In  the  imperative,  omit  the  tense,  and  say  thus,  love  thoUy  imperative, 
active,  second  person,  singular. 

In  the  infinitive,  omit  the  person  and  number,  and  say  thus,  To  love; 
present,  infinitive,  active. 

In  the  participle,  name  only  the  tense  and  voice;  thus,  loving  i  pres- 
ent participle,  active. 

N.  B.  The  pronoun  is  no  part  of  the  verb,  but  helps  to  show  its 
person  and  numVjer ;  ^nd  the  auxiliaries  (or  signs)  are  not  taken 
separately,  but  always  with  the  verb ;  so  that  the  two  words,  and 
sometimes  three,  as  in  the  past-perfect  potential,  are  parsed  together 
as  one  word;  thus,  have  loved,  the  present-perfect,  indicative,  active, 
&c. 

N.  B.  This  Exercise  should  be  repeated  till  the  pupil  can  do  it 
correctly,  rapidly,  and  easily,  and  without  missing,  either  in  the  num- 
ber or  order  of  the  things  to  be  stated. 

He  loves,  they  love,  I  have  loved,  you  will  love,  thou 
teachest,  they  will  learn,  he  has  written,  I  had  given,  James 
will  go,  John  may  come,  he  might  read,  they  would  have 
studied,  children  play,  boys  studied,  they  did  study. 
Write  thou,  come  ye.  To  love,  to  sing,  to  have  played, 
reading,  sleeping,  running,  loved,  learned,  having  loved, 
having  gone,  birds  fly,  horses  galloped,  the  fire  burns,  the 
sun  did  shine,  the  moon  has  changed. 

N.  B.  Pupils  may  be  required  to  make  exercises  of  this  kind  for 
themselves. 

1  EXERCISE  II. 

Before  beginning  this  Exercise,  let  the  pupil  go  back  and  review, 
thoroughly  Lesson  16,  and  the  exercises  on  it;  then 

1.  Tell  which  words  are  verbs,  and  why  ;  and  whether  transitive  or 

intransitive,  and  why. 

2.  Tell  their  tense,  mood,  voice,  person,  and  number,  as   in  the  pre- 

ceding Exercise. 
2.  Go  over  it  again,  and  parse  each  verb  by  putting  all  these  togeth- 
er ;  thus,  loves,  is    a  verb,  transitive,  in  the  present,  indicative, 
active,  third  person,  singular. 

He  loves  us,  I  will  love  him.     Good  boys  will  study  their  • 
lessons.     Children   love  play.     The   dog  killed  my  rabbit. 
James  has  written  a  letter.     Cows  eat  hay.     A  fire  warms 
the  room.     Bring  some.  wood.     I   have  studied  grammar. 


60  INTRODUCTION   TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

Girls  may  write  letters.  Your  sister  can  sing.  He  would 
like  to  hear  a  song.  Give  that  book  to  me.  I  will  give 
this  book  to  you.  Lend  me  your  pen.  Children  should 
obey  their  parents ;  they  should  love  God.  Remember  the 
Sabbath  day,  to  keep  it.  All  men  must  die.  Time  waits 
for  no  man.  Do  good  to  all  men.  John  will  mend  my 
pen  ;  I  will  thank  him.  You  would  oblige  me  by  assisting 
me  to  learn  this  lesson.  Tell  Henry  to  shut  the  door. 
-  "And  he  opened  his  mouth,  and  taught  them,  saying. 
Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit :  for  tlieirs  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven.  Blessed  are  they  that  mourn :  for  they  shall  be 
comforted.  Blessed  are  the  meek :  for  they  shall  inherit  the 
earth.  Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and  thirst  after 
righteousness :  for  they  shall  be  filled." 

EXERCISE  III. 
1.  The  Nominative  Case. 
N.  B.  A  verb  in  the  active  voice  tells  what  some  person  or  thing 
does.  That  person  or  thing  then  is  its  subject,  and  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case ;  thus,  in  the  iirst  sentence  of  the  preceding  Exercise,  the 
word  "  /oye.s,"  tells  what  "  /te"  does ;  he,  therefore,  is  its  subject,  and 
is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Point  out  the  verb  in  each  sentence  of  the  preceding  Exercise ;  tell 
what  word  is  its  subject,  and  why  ?     What  case  is  the  subject  in? 

2.   The  Objective  Case. 

A  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice  tells  what  its  subject  does  to 
some  person  or  thing.  That  person  or  thing  is  the  object  of  the  verb, 
and  is  in  the  objective  case.  Thus,  in  the  above  sentence,  "He  loves 
us,"  loves  is  a  transitive  verb,  and  tells  what  its  subject,  /«,  does  to  us. 
Us,  then,  is  its  object,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

The  nominative,  or  subject,  is  usually  before  the  verb ;  the  objective 
is  usually  after  it. 

Point  out  the  transitive  verbs  in  the  preceding  Exercise.  Tell  what 
word  is  the  object  in  each  sentence,  and  what  case  it  is  in. 

EXERCISE  IV. 
Parsing. 
Go  over  the  preceding  Exercise,  and  parse  each  word  in  order ; — 
the  nouns  as  directed.  Lesson  8,  p.  18 ; — the  articles  as  directed. 
Lesson  9,  p.  21 ; — the  adjectives  as  directed,  Lesson  11,  p.  25; — the 
pronouns  as  directed,  Lesson  12,  p.  28;  and  the  verbs  as  directed  in 
thi«)  Lesson,  p.  58. 


NEGATIVE  FORM  OF  THE  VERB.  61 

liesson  25. — Negative  Form  of  the  Verb, 

The  verb  is  made  to  deny  by  placing  the  word  not  after  the  simple 
form;  as,  "Thou  lovest  «o^;"  and  between  the  auxiliary  and  the 
verb  in  the  compound  form  ;  as,  "  I  do  not  love."  When  two  auxilia- 
ries are  used,  not'is  placed  between  them ;  as,  I  would  not  have  loved. 

In  the  infinitive  and  participles,  the  negative  is  put  first,  as,  Not 
to  love ;  not  loving.  / 

The  simple  form  is  seldom  used  with  the  negative.  In  the  present 
and  the  past  tense,  the  compound  or  emphatic  form  is  more  common. 
The  following  synopsis  will  show  the  manner  of  using  the  negative. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present.  1.  I  do  not  love.  2.  Thou  dost  not  love,-  &c. 

pREs,  Pebp.  1.  I  have  not  loved.  2.  Thou  hast  not  loved,  &c. 

Past.  1.  1  did  not  love.  2.  ^hou  didst  not  love,  &c. 

Past  Perf.  1.  I  had  not  loved.  2.  Thou  hadst  not  loved,  &c. 

Future.  I.  I  will  not  love.  2.  Thou  wilt  not  love,  &c. 

FuT.  Pbrf.  1.  I  shall  not  have  2.  Thou  shalt  not  have  loved,  &c. 
loved. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present.       1.  I  can  not  love.  2.  Thou  canst  not  love,  &c. 

Pres.  Perf.  1.  I  may  not  have  2.  Thou  mayst  not  have  loved, 

loved.  &c. 

Past.  1.  I  might  not  love.  2.  Thou  mightst  not  love,  &c. 

Past  Perf.    1.  I  might  not  have  2.  Thou  mightst  not  have  loved, 

loved.  &c. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 
Present.       1.  7/"  I  do  not  love.      2.  If  thou  do  not  love,  &c. 
The  other  tenses  are  the  same  as  in  the  indicative. 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Sing.  2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  thou    Plur.  2.  Love  not,  or  do  not  ye 
love.  love. 

INFINITIVE   MOOD. 
Present.       Not  to  love.  Perf.  Not  to  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present.  Not  loving.  Past.  Not  loved* 

Perf.  Not  having  loved. 


62 


INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 


licsson  96. — Interrogative  Form  of  the  Verb, 

The  verb  is  made  to  ask  a  question  by  placing  the  nominative  or 
subject  after  the  simple  form ;  as,  Lovest  thou?  and  between  the  aux- 
iliary and  the  verb  in  the  compound  forms;  as,  Do  I  love?  When 
there  are  two  auxiliaries  the  nominative  is  placed  between  them ;  as, 
Shall  I  have  loved? 

The  subjunctive,  imperative,  and  infinitive  moods,  and  the  partici- 
ples, can  not  have  the  interrogative  forms. 

The  simple  form  of  the  verb  is  seldom  used  interrogatively.  The 
following  synopsis  will  show  how  the  verb  is  put  into  the  interroga- 
tive form. 


INDICATIYE   MOOD. 


Present. 
pRES.  Perf. 
Past. 
Past  Perp. 

Future. 


1.  Do  I  love  ?     - 
1.  Have  I  loved? 
1.  Did  Hove? 
1.  Had  I  loved? 
1.  Shall  I  love? 


2.  Dost  thou  love?  &c. 
2.  Hast  thou  loved  ?  &c. 
2.  Didst  thou  love  ?  &c. 
2.  Hadst  thou  loved?  &c. 
2.  Wilt  thou  love  ?  &c. 


Fut.  Perf.     1.  Shall  I  have  loved ?  2.  Wilt  thou  have  loved?  &o. 


POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present.        1.  May  I  love  ?  2.  Canst  thou  love  ?  &c. 

pRES.  Perf.  1.  May  I  have  loved?  2.  Canst  thou  have  loved?  &c. 
Past.  1.  Might  I  love  ?  2.  Couldst  thou  love  ?  &c. 

Past  Pe&f.    1.  Might  I  have  2.  Couldst  thou  have  loved  ?  &c. 

loved  ? 

Obs.  Interrogative  sentences  are  made  negative  by  placing  the 
negative  either  before  or  after  the  nominative ;  as,  Do  I  not  love  ? 
or,  Do  not  I  love  ? 


QUESTIONS. 

How  is  a  verb  made  negative  ?  Where  is  the  negative  placed  in 
the  simple  form  ?  Where,  in  the  compound  form  ?  Where,  when 
there  are  two  auxiliaries  ?  Where,  in  the  infinitive  and  participles  ? 
Say  the  indicative  present  in  the  negative  form  througl^out^ — the 
other  tenses. 

How  is  the  verb  made  interrogative  ?  Where  is  the  nommative 
placed  in  the  simple  form  ?  Where,  in  the  compound  torm?  Where, 
when  there  are  two  auxiliapies?  What  parts  of  the  verb  can  not  be 
used  interrogatively  ?  Say  the  indicative  present  throughout,  inter- 
rogatively.   Say  the  other  tenses. 


PROvSRESSIVE    F(^RM    OF    THE   ACTIVE    \  OICE.  63 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Put  the  verb,  in  the  following  sentences,  into  the  negative  form. 

2.  Pat  the  verb,  in  the  following  sentences,  into  the  interrogative 
form 

S    Distinguish  the  different  parts  of  speech,  and  parse  them,  as  in 
the  preceding  Exercise,  IV. 

I  I  love  you.  You  loved  me.  James  studies  grammar. 
Your  father  has  come.  He  will  go  soon.  The  ship  foun- 
dered at  sea.  John  would  eat  apples.  Apples  will  grow 
on  this  tree.  The  horse  will  run  a  race.  The  fox  had 
caught  the  goose.  Rabbits  eat  clover.  Study  overcomes 
most  difficulties.  Labor  promotes  health.  Wealth  makes 
the  man.  Poverty  scatters  friends.  The  ships  sail.  The 
sun  has  set.     The  moon  rose.     The  stars  will  shine. 

N.  B,  Let  the  pupils  make  similar  exercises  for  themselves,  and 
parse  tliem. 


Tjesson  97. — Progressive  Form  of  the  Active 
Voice. 

The  Progressive  form  of  the  verb  is  inflected 
by  prefixing  the  verb  to  be,  through  all  its 
moods  and  tenses,  to  the  present  participle; 
thus, 

Prksent.  1.  I  am  writing.  2.  Thou  art  writing,  &c. 

Prks.  Perp.  1.  I  have  been  writing.  2.  Thou  hast  been  writing,  &c. 

Past.  1    I  was  writing.  2.  Thou  wast  writing,  &c. 

Past  Perf.  1.  I  had  been  writing.  2.  Thou  hadst  been  writing,  &c. 

Future.  1.  I  shall  be  writing.  2.  Thou  shalt  be  writing,  &c. 

Fur.  Perf.  1.  I  shall  or  will  have  2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been 
been  writing.  writing,  &c. 

In  this  manner  go  through  the  other  moods  and  tenses. 

Note.  Verbs  which,  in  ti.e  common  form  imply  continuance^  do 
aot  usually  admit  the  progressive  form  •  thus,  "  I  am  loving'''  (if  prop- 
et),  would  mean  nothing  more  than,  "•!  Ime^ 

^  EXERCISES. 

1  Change  the  following  verbs  from  the  simple  icto  the  progressive 
form : 


.;uHi7Br.. 


64  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

He  writes,  they  read,  thou  teachest,  we  have  learned,  he 
had  written,  they  go;  you  will  build,  1  ran,  John  has  done  it, 
we  taught,  he  stands,  he  stood,  they  will  -  stand,  they  may 
read,  we  can  sew,  you  should  study,  we  might  have  read. 

2.  Change  the  following,  from  the  progressive  into  the  simple  form : 

We  are  writing,  they  were  singing,  they  have  been  riding, 
we  might  be  walking,  I  may  have  been  sleeping,  they  are 
coming,  thou  art  teaching,  they  have  been  eating,  he  has 
been  moving,  we  have  been  defending,  they  had  been  run- 
ning. 

3.  Parse  the  above  verbs  in  the  progressive  forrii ;  thus,  "  We  are 
vrriting ;'*''  *^ are  tiyriting^^  is  a  verb,  transitive,  irregular;  write^  vrrote^ 
written;  [See  Lesson  29]  in  the  present,  indicative,  active,  first 
person,  plural,  progressive  form. 


Lesson  28. — Passive  Voice. 

The  Passive  voice  is  inflected  by  adding  the 
past  participle  to  the  auxihary  verb  to  he, 
through  all  its  moods  and  tenses;  thus; 


Present  >               Present  Part.               Past                       Past  Part. 
Am  loved.            Being  loved.                Was  loved.             Loved. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

SuJCfular. 

1.  I  am  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved, 
8.  He  is  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  You  are  loved. 
8.  They  are  loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSB. 

1.  I  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved. 
8.  He  has  been  loved. 

Si^n,  ?iave. 

1.  We  have  been  loved. 

2.  You  have  been  loved. 
S.  They  have  been  loved. 

PAST  TENSB. 

1.  I  was  loved. 

2.  Thou  wast  loved. 

3.  He  was  loved. 

1.  We  were  loved. 

2.  You  were  loved. 

3.  They  were  loved. 

PASSIVE    VOICE.  65 

PAST-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Sign,  had. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1.  We  had  been  lovedi 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.      2.  You  had  been  loved. 
8.  He  had  been  loved.        3.  They  had  beeu  loved. 

FUTURE  TENSE. 

Signs,  shall,  will. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  be  loved.  1.  We  shall  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  be  loved.  2.  You  shall  be  loved. 

3.  He  shall  be  loved.  3.  They  shall  be  loved. 

FUTURE-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  shall  have,  mil  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  loved.  1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  shalt  have  been  loved.       2.  You  shall  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  shall  have  been  loved.  3.  They  shall  have  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Signs,  may,  can,  mtist. — Inflect  with  each. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  be  loved.  1.  We  may  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  niayst  be  loved.  2.  You  may  be  loved. 

3.  He  may  be  loved.  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT-PERFECT  TENSE. 

Signs,  may  have,  can  have,  must  have. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved.  1;  We  may  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved.    2.  You  may  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved.  3.  They  may  have  been  loved, 

PAST  TENSE. 

Signs,  might,  could,  would,  should. — Inflect  with  each. 

1.  I  might  be  loved.  1.  We  might  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved.  2.  You  might  be  loved. 

3.  He  might  be  loved,  3.  They  might  be  loved. 

PAST-PERFECT    TENSE. 

Signs,  might  have,  cmdd  have,  would  have,  should  have. — ^Inflect  witk 
each. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved.  1.  We  might  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been  loved.  2.  You  might  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved.        8.  They  might  have  been  loved. 


66  INTKODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE  {Subjuncttve /omi). 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  ij^  I  be  loved.  1.  Jf  we  be  loved. 

2.  Jf  thou  be  loved.  2.  Jf  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved.  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

PAST  TENSE  (SubJunctive  form).^ 
l.Ifl  were  loved.  1.  If^ve  were  loved. 

2.  Jf  thoxx  were  or  wert  loved.       2.  -^you  were  loved. 

3.  JfhQ  Avere  loved.  3.  Jflhoy  were  loved. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.  Be  thou  loved.  2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE    MOOD. 
Present.     To  be  loved.  Perf.     To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present^  Being  loved.  Pa.s<,  Loved. 

Perfect,  Having  been  loved. 

EXERCISE  I. 
On  the  Passive  Voice. 

1.  Tell  the  tense,  mood,  person,  and  number  of  the  following  words 
in  tj^e  passive  voice ; — change  them  into  the  active  form. 

2.  Go  over  the  exercise  again,  and  parse  each  word  in  order ;  thus, 
"  They,"  is  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  masculine  (or  feminine^, 
in  the  nominative  plural,  the  subject  of  are  loved:  '■^ are  loved/"  is  a 
verb,  transitive,  in  the  present,  indicative,  passive,  third  person,  plu- 
ral, because  its  subject,  "  they,"  is  third  person,  plural. 

They  are  loved ;  we  were  loved ;  thou  art  loved ;  it  is 
loved ;  she  was  loved ;  he  has  been  loved ;  you  have  been 
loved ;  I  have  been  loved ;  thou  hadst  been  loved  ;  we  shall 
be  loved ;  thou  wilt  be  loved ;  they  will  be  loved ;  I  shall 
have  been  loved ;  you  will  have  been  loved. 

*  The  indicative  form  in  all  the  tenses  is  the  same  as  the  indicative 
with  a  conjmiction  prefixed;  thus,  Jf  J  am  loved,  Jf  Ihave  been  loved, 
Jf  J  loas  loved,  Jf  JJiadbeen  loved,  Jf  J  shall  or  will  be  loved,  Jf  J  shall 
have  been  loved. 


PEOMISCDOUS   EXERCISES. 


67 


He  can  be  loved;  thou  mayst  be  loved;  she  must  be 
laved;  they  might  be  loved;  ye  would  be  loved;  they 
should  be  loved ;  I  could  be  Joved ;  thou  mayst  have  been 
loved ;  it  may  have  been  loved;  you  might  have  been  loved; 
if  I  be  loved ;  if  thou  wert  loved ;  though  we  be  loved ; 
though  they  be  loved.  Be  thou  loved ;.  be  ye  loved  ;  you 
b(3  loved.  To  be  loved;  loved;  having  been  loved ;  to  have 
been  loved ;  being  loved. 

3,  Change  the  preceding,  from  the  passive  to  the  active  progres- 
sive form. 

EXERCISE  II. 
On  the  Nonn,  Article,  Adjective,  Pronmm,  Verb,  promiscrwndy. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  tell  which  words  are  articles — which 
are  nouns — and  why  ; — which  ai'e  adjectives — and  why ; — which  are 
pronouns — and  why ; — which  are  verbs — and  why. 

2.  Point  out  the  verbs ;  tell  whether  transitive  or  intransitive — and 
why ; — active  or  passive — and  why. 

3.  Go  over  again,  and  point  out  the  nouns,  and  tell  whether  proper 
or  common — and  why; — singular  or  plural — and  why; — their  gen- 
der— and  why. 

He  has  leamed  his  lesson.  I  loved  him  because  he  was 
good.  A  good  man  will  forgive  those  who  may  have  injured 
him.  Love  your  enemies ;  do  good  to  them  that  hate  you. 
Remember  your  Creator  in  the  days  of  your  youth.  We 
are  commanded  to  love  our  neighbor  as  ourselves.  Tliat 
book  was  printed  in  New  York.  The  winter  has  been  cold, 
but  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow.  Columbus  discov- 
ered America.  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus.  I 
have  been  studying  grammar.  It  is  never  too  late  to  learn 
that  which  is  good  and  useful.  Peter  Parley  has  written 
some  pleasing  books.  Good  boys  love  reading.  Study  td 
understand  what  you  read. 

4.  Go  over  the  preceding  Exercise,  and  parse  each  word  in  order, 
as  directed  in  preceding  Exercises. 

N.  B. — It  will  now  be  important  to  review  thoroughly  and  repeat- 
edly from  Lesson  23,  particularly  Lessons  23,  26,  and  28,  with  the 
Exercises  under  them.  This  will  require  several  recitations.  And 
while  that  is  going  on,  the  pupil  may  also  go  forward  with  Lesson 
29,  conjugating  from  memory  the  irregular  verbs,  iu  such  portions 
dally  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 


68 


INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALinCAL   GBAMMAB. 


Liesson  20. — Irregular  Verbs, 

Irregular  Yerbs  are  those  that  do  not  form 
their  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed 
to  the  present ;  as,  Am,  was,  been. 

They  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  classes : 

1.  Those  which  have  only  one  form  for  the  three  parts  given;  vi» 


Present. 

Fajst. 

Fast  Fa/rticiple. 

Bet 

bet  R* 

betR 

Burst 

burst 

burst 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Hit 

hit 

•      hit 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Knit 

knit  B 

knits 

Let 

iQt 

let 

Put 

put 

put 

Quit 

quit  B 

quits 

Rap 

B  rapt 

B  rapt 

Read 

read 

read 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Set  6«- 

set  de- 

set  de- 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  slitted 

Spit, 

spit,  (spat,  obselete.) 

spit 

Split 

split 

split 

Spread  de- 

spread  be- 

spreffd  6e- 

Sweat 

R  sweat 

R  sweat 

Thrust 

thrust 

tlirust 

"Wet 

R  wet 

R  wet 

Whet 

R  whet 

R  whet 

2.  Those  that  have  two  forms  for  the  parts  given  ;  viz. : 

Abide  abode  abode 

Beat  beat  beaten,  beat 

Bend  bent  r  bent  R 

Bereave  B  bereft  B  bereft 

Beseech  besought  besought 

Betide  R  betid  r  betid 


*  Thoso  verbs  that  are  also  conjugated  regularly  are  marked  w'th 
an  B.     When  two  forrm  are  given,  tfie  first  is  most  used. 


mBEGTTLAB 

VERBS.                                     i 

Present. 

Past. 

Fast  participle 

Bless 

■  blest 

B  blest 

Bind  wn. 

bound  un- 

bound  un- 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Breed 

bred 

bred 

Bring 

brought 

brought 

Build  re- 

built  re-  B 

built  re-  B 

Bum 

B  burnt 

R  burnt 

Buy 

bought      * 

bought 

Caleb 

caught  E 

caught  B 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

ComoJe^ 

came  be- 

come  &e- 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Deal 

dealt  R 

dealt  B 

Dig 

dugR 

dugB 

Dream 

B  dreamt 

R  dreamt 

Dress 

B  drest 

R  drest 

DweU 

dwelt  B 

dwelt  B 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Feer 

felt 

felt 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

Find 

found 

found 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

Gild 

E  gilt 

Rgilt 

Gird  be-  erh 

R  girt  be-  en- 

R  girt  be-  en- 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Hang 

hung 

bung 

Have 

had 

had 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Hold  be-  with- 

held  be-  with- 

held,  holden  (6  wiSk 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Kneel 

B  knelt 

knelt  R 

Lay  be- 

laid be- 

laid  be- 

head  mia- 

led  mis- 

led  mis- 

Lean 

B  leant 

R  leant 

Leap 

R  leapt 

R  leapt 

Learn 

B  learnt 

R  learnt 

Leave 

left 

left 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Lie 

lied 

lied 

Light 

,    Blit 

B  lit 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Make 

made 

made 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

Meet 

met 

met 

Pass 

B  past 

B  past 

Payr*- 

paid  re- 

paid  n- 

Pen,  to  enclo$4 

Bpent 

B  pent 

eo 


70 


INTBODUCnON   TO   ANALYTICAL   GBAMMAR. 


Present 

Past 

Past  Participk. 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Ride 

'Dde 

rode,  ridden 

Run 

ran 

rua 

Say 

said 

said 

Seek 

sought 

sought 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Send 

sent            * 

sent 

Shine 

shone  b 

shone  B 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Sit 

sat 

sat  (sitten,  obseldt,) 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Sling 

slung 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Smell 

B  smelt 

B  smelt 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spell 

B  spelt 

B  spelt 

Spend  mis- 

spent  mis- 

spent  mis- 

Spill 

B  spilt 

B  spilt 

Spoil 

spoilt  B 

B  spoilt 

Stand  with-  &c 

stood  with- 

stood  wi^ 

Stave 

B  stovo 

B  stove 

Stay 

B  staid 

B  staid 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

S^?r.g 

stung 

stung 

Strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

String 

strung 

strung 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Teach  mia- 

taught  OTW- 

taught  mid- 

Te'l 

told 

told 

Think  6e- 

thought  be- 

thought  &9> 

Weep 

wept 

wept 

Win 

won 

won 

"Wind 

wound  B 

"wound  B 

Work 

wrought  B 

wrought  B 

Wring 

B  wrung 

wrung  B 

3.  Those  which  have  three  forma  for  the  parts  given  ;  vafc» 

Am 

was 

been 

Arise  ^ 

arose 

arisen 

Awak'e 

awoke  b 

awaked 

Bake 

baked 

B  baken 

Rear,  to  "bring  forth 

bare,  bore 

born 

Bear  for- 

bore,  bare /or- 

borne  for-- 

Begin 

began 

begun 

Bid 

bade,  bid 

bidden,  bid 

Bito 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

IBBEQULAE  VERBS. 


Tl 


Present, 

Past 

Past  Participle. 

Blow 

blew 

blown 

Break 

broke,  brake 

broken,  broke 

Chide 

chid 

chidden,  chid 

Clioose 

chose 

chosen 

Cleave,  to  adhere 

R  clave 

cleaved 

Cleave,  to  split 

clove,  cleft 

cloven,  clefl 

Clothe 

clothed,^  clad 
R  crew 

B  clad 

Crow 

crowed 

Dare,  to  venture 

R  durBt 

dared 

Dive 

R  dove 

dived 

Do  mis-  UTir 

did  mis-  un- 

done  mis-  tf»- 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Drink 

drank 

drunk 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten 

Fall  be- 

fell  be- 

fallen  he- 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

Forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Freight 

freighted 

fraught  R 

Get  be- 

got,  gat  be- 

gotten,  got  5«- 

Give /or-  mis- 

gave /or-  mis- 

giveu/or-f?»»»- 

Go 

went 

gone 

Gra\e  en- 

graved  en- 

B  graven  en- 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Heave 

R  hove 

R  hoven 

Hew 

hewed 

R  hewn 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Know 

knew 

known 

Lade 

laded 

laden 

Lie,  to  lie  down 

lay 

lain 

Load 

loaded 

R  laden 

Mow 

mowed 

R  mown 

Ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

Rise  Or 

rose  a- 

risen  o- 

Rive 

rived 

R  riven 

Saw 

sawed 

R  sawn 

See 

saw 

seen 

Seethe 

R  sod 

R  sodden 

Shake 

shook 

shaken 

Shape  mis- 

shaped  mia- 

R  shapen  mia- 

Shave 

shaved 

R  shaven 

Shear 

B  shore 

shorn 

Show 

showed 

R  shown 

Shrink 

shrunk,  shrank 

shrunk,  ahnrnke* 

Sing 

sung,  sang 

sung 

Sink 

sunk,  sank    . 

sunk 

73 


INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GKAMMAB. 


Present 

Pa^t. 

PastPartidpUs 

Slay 

dew 

slain 

Slid* 

SlidR 

slidden,  slid  B 

SliDg 

slung,  slang 

slung 

Smite 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

Sow 

Bowed 

sown  B 

Speak  be- 

spoke,  spake  be- 

spoken  6©- 

Spin 

spuu,  span 

spun 

Spring 

sprung,  sprang 

sprung 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stride  be- 

strode,  strid  be- 

stridden,  strid  &• 

Strive 

R  strove 

striven 

Strow  be- 

strewed  be- 

R  strown  be- 

Swear 

swore,  sware 

sworu 

Swell 

swelled 

R  swollen 

Swim 

swum,  swara 

swum 

Take  be-  under- 

took  be-  under- 

taken  be-  under 

Tear 

tore  (tare,  obseleie.) 

torn 

Thrive 

B  throve 

R  thriven 

Throw 

threw  R 

R  thrown 

Tread 

trod  (trode,  dbs.) 

trodden,  trod 

Wax 

waxed 

R  waxen 

Wear 

wore 

worn 

Weave 

wove 

woven 

Write 

wrote  (writ,  obs.) 

written  (writ,  obs.) 

Questions.— 

What  are  irregular  verbs  ? 

Into  how  many  classes  may 

they  be  divided? 

What  are  they  ?  Are  any  verbs  both  regular  and  irreg- 

ular?     Give  an 

example.     Since  there  is  no  list  of  regular  verbs,  how 

may  we  know  what  verbs  are  regular?     Is  "am"  regular  or  irregu- 

lar— and  why? 

EXERCISE  I. 

1.  Name  the  present  and  past  tenses,  Indicative  mood,  and  past 
participle  of  the  following  verbs ;  thus.  Take,  took,  taken. 

2.  Make  a  short  sentence  on  the  slate  or  blackboard,  with  each 
verb,  in  the  present  tense — in  the  perfect-tense — in  the  past  tc:jsc — 
in  any  tense ;  thus,  We  take  breakfast  early.  John  took  my  hat.  I 
have  taken  his  coat. 

Take,  drive,  creep,  begin,  abide,  buy,  brin^,  arise,  catch, 
bereave,  am,  burst,  draw,  drink,  fly,  flee,  fall,  get,  give,  go, 
feel,  forsake,  grow,  have,  hear,  hide,  keep,  know,  lose,  pay, 
ride,  ring,  shake,  run,  seek,  sell,  see,  sit,  slay,  slide,  smite, 
speak,  stand,  tell,  win,  write. 

3.  In  the  sentences  made  as  directed  No.  2,  tell  which  verbs  are 
transitive,  and  which  are  intransitive — and  why.  Point  out  the  sub 
ject  in  each  sentence,  that  is,  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  anc 


DEFECTIVE  AND  IMPERSONAL  VERBS.        73 

call  that  the  nominative.     Tell  which  nouns  or  pronouns  are  in  tlie 
nominative — and  why ; — in  the  objective — and  why. 

4.  In  each  sentence,  put  the  verb  in  the  emphatic  form — in  the 
progressive  form — in  the  negative  form — in  the  interrogative  form— 
iu  the  negative  interrogative  form. 

EXERCISE  IL 

'    1.  'in  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  which  verbs  are  regular, 
.and  which  are  irregular — and  why. 

2.  Make  short  sentences  with  each  verb,  as  in  the  preceding  Exer- 
cise, and  do  with  each  as  there  directed,  in  Nos.  2,  3,  4. 

Love,  hope,  trust,  weep,  throw,  keep,  brush,  hunt,  count, 
reckon,  ask,  sleep,  eat,  drink,  spin,  save,  go,  teach,  wipe, 
am,  dravv,  bruise,  water,  know,  wash,  spoil. 

3.  Take  the  sentences  containing  transitive  verbs,  and  express  the 
same  idea  by  the  passive  form  ;  thus,  suppose  the  sentence  to  be, 
"James  loves  praise  ;  "  passive  form,  "Praise  is  loved  by  James." 

4.  Parse  the  sentences  so  changed. 


Lesson  30, ^^Defe dive  and  Impersonal  Verbs. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  in  which  some  of 
the  parts  are  wanting.  They  are  irregular, 
and  chiefly  auxihary.     These  are, — 

Present.  Fast.  Fast  Part.  Present.  Past.  Past  Part. 

Can  could  Shall  should  

May  might  Will  would  

Must  Wis  wist  

Ought  ought  Wit  or  )  .  ^ 

Quoth  quoth  Wot      f  ^^^  

Imperative^ — Beware. 

2.  Ijvipersonal  verbs  are  those  which  assert 
the  existence  of  some  action  or  state,  but  refer 
it  to  no  particular  subject.  They  are  preceded 
by  the  pronoun  it,  and  are  always  in  the  third 
person  singular 3  as,  it  seems;  it  becomes ,  &c. 


74  INTRODUCTION  TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

To  this  head  may  be  refciTod  such  expressions  as,  Tt  Iinih,  U 
tuows,  it  rams,  it  thuudcrs,  it  be/iooveih,  it  irkcth  ;  and  perhaps  also, 
met/wiks,  methong/it,  mefieeuis^  meteemed,  iu  which,  instead  of  it,  tlie 
first  personal  pronoun  iu  the  objective  case,  me,  is  prefixed  to  the 
third  person  singuhir  of  the  verb. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  defective  verb?  Are  they  regular  or  irregular?  What 
are  they  ?  What  tenses  do  the  most  of  them  have  ?  What  tense 
has  must? — ought?  Is  it  proper  to  say  "I  had  ought  to  read?" 
Why?  What  is  an  impersonal  verb  ?  By  what  are  they  preceded  ? 
In  what  person  and  number  are  they  ?  What  other  word  besides 
"  '<• "  la  sometimes  put  before  impersonal  verbs  ? 


liesson  3  1 . — Adverbs. 
[Review  the  preceding  Lesson.] 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verby 
an  adjective,  or  another  adverb,  or  to  denote 
some  circumstance  respecting  it  ;  as,  Ann 
speaks  distinctly :  she  is  remarkably  diligent,  and 
reads  ver^  correctly. 

Adverbs  have  been  divided  into  various  classes,  according  to  their 
signification.     The  chief  of  these  are  such  as  denote, 

I.  Quality  or  Manner  simply;  as,  weU,  ill,  bravely,  prudently, 
toftly,  vviih  very  many  othei-s,  formed  from  adjectives  by  adding  ly,  or 
changing  le  into  ly  ;  thus,  tame,  tamely ;  sensible,  sensibly,  «fec. 

2.  Place;  as,  here,  there,  inhere;  hither,  thither;  hence,  &c. 

3.  Time;  as,  nmo,  then,  when;  noon,  often,  .seldom;  ever,  &c. 

4.  Direction;  as,  npvmrd,  downward,  backward,  forward,  &c. 

5.  Neoation  ;  as,  nai/,  no,  not,  nowise,  never. 

6.  Affirmation;  as,  verilij,  truJij,  nndoabtedlif,  yea,  yes. 
*?.  Uncertainty  ;  as,  perhaps,  peradventure,  perchance. 

8.  Interrogation  ;  as,  how,  ivhy,  when,  wherefore,  &c. 

9.  Comparison  ;  as,  more,  most ;  less,  lea.st ,  as,  so,  thus,  &c. 
10.  Qtantity;  as,  much,  little,  enough,  sufficiently. 

II.  Order;  as,  first,  secondly,  thirdly,  &c. 

12.  Conjunctive  Adverbs  ;  as,  when,  where,  how,  while,  &c. 

OBSERVATIONS. 
1.  The  chief  use  of  adverbs,  is  to  shorten  discourse,  by  expressing 


ADVERBS.  75 

in  one  word  what  would  oilierwise  require  two  or  more ;  as,  here^  for 
"iu  this  place  ;"  iiobli/,  for  "iu  a  noble  manuer,"  &c. 

2.  Some  adverbs  admit  of  eomparisou  like  .adjectives;  a?,  sooti^ 
soo7ier,  soonest ;  nobly,  more  nohly^  most  nobly.  A  few  are  compared 
irregularly  ;  as,  well^  betteVy  best ;  badly ^  or  ill,  worse,  worst. 

3.  Some  words  become  adverbs  by  prefixing  a,  which  signifie?  at^ 
or  07t ;  as,  abed,  ashore,  ajloat,  agroxcnd,  apart. 

4.  In  comparisons,  the  antecedents  as  and  so  are  usually  reckoned 
adverbs;  the  corresponding  as  and  so  are  adverbs  also;  thus.  It  ifl 
as  high  as  Heaven. 

Circumstances  of  time,  place,  manner,  &c.,  are  often  expressed  by 
two  or  more  words  constituting  an  adverbial  phrase ;  as,  tn  short,  in 
fine,  in  general,  at  most,  at  least,  at  length,  not  at  all,  by  no  means, 
in  vain,  in  order,  long  ago,  bye  and  bye,  to  and  fro,  &c.,  which,  taken 
together,  may  be  parsed  as  adverbs,  or  by  supplying  the  ellipsis; 
thus,  in  a  short  space  :  in  a  general  way,  &c. 

6.  A  Conjunctive  Adverb  is  one  that  modifies  two  different  words 
and  connects  the  clauses  to  which  they  belong ;  as,  "  I  will  see  you 
when  you  come."     *'  He  is  happy  where  he  is."    (534.) 

Parsing. — An  adverb  is  parsed  by  stating  its 
class,  and  the  word  which  it  modifies  ;  thus, 

"  Ann  speaks  disiinctly."  Distinctly  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  and 
modifies  "  speaks." 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  an  adverb?  In  the  sentence,  "  Ann  speaks  distinctly," 
which  is  the  adverb?  Why?  Into  how  many  classes  are  adverbs 
commonly  divided?  Name  the  first  three — the  second  three — the 
next  three — the  last  three.  How  are  adverbs  formed  from  adjectives? 
What  is  the  chief  use  of  adverbs?  How  are  adverbs  compared  like 
adjectives?  Give  an  example.  Are  any  compared  irregularly? 
Give  an  example.  What  is  an  adverbial  phrase  ?  Give  examples. 
How  are  such  phrases  to  be  parsed  ?  How  are  adverbs  parsed  ?  For 
what  do  conjunctive  adverbs  stand  ? 

EXERCISE  I. 

1.  In  the  followiirg  list  of  adverbs,  point  out  the  class  to  whi(* 
«a/Th  belongs 


76  IXTIIODUCTIO-V    TO    AXALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

2.  Compare  those  that  admit  of  comparison. 

3  JIuke  a  number  of  sliort  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain 
one  or  more  of  the  adverbs  in  the  following  list ;  and  parse  the  sen- 
tences so  made. 

Here,  there,  Foftly,  boldly,  widely,  seldom,  upward,  once, 
twice,  liitherto,  yesterday,  how,  more,  little,  secondly,  enough, 
perhaps;,  yes,  no,  truly,  jiot,  already,  hence,  whence,  be  tier, 
sufhciently,  wisely,  somewhere.  / 

EXERCISE  II. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  tpU  what  words  are  articles — what 
words  are  nouns,  and  why — adjectives,  and  why— pronouns,  and 
Avhy — verbs,  and  why — whether  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why — 
regular  or  irregular,  and  w  hy, 

2.  Which  words  are  adverbs  ? — and  why  ?  What  w^ords  do  they 
niodity  ?     Parse. 

Peter  wept  bitterly.  lie  is  here  now.  She  went  away 
yesterday.  They  came  to-day.  They  will  perhaps  buy 
fcome  to-morrow.  Ye  shall  know  hereafter.  She  sang 
sweetly.  Cats  soon  learn  to  catch  mice.  JNIary  rose  up 
hastily.  They  that  have  enough  m;iy  soundly  sleep.  Cain 
wickedly  slew  his  brother.  I  >^a\v  him  long  ago.  He  is  a 
Very  good  man.  Sooner  or  later  all  must  die.  You  read 
too  little.     They  talk  too  much. 


fjesson  3^5 — Prepositions, 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  w^liich  sliow^s  the  re- 
lation between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  after  it  and 
some  other  word  in  the  sentence ;  as, 

"  The  book  is  upon  the  table,"     "  They  speak  concerning  virtue." 

In  these  sentences,  the  preposition,  '■'■upon,''^  shows  the  relation 
between  "table"  and  "book;"  and  '' concerning^^  shows  the  relation 
between  *•  virtue"  and  "  speak." 

Note. — Instead  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  a  preposition  maybe  fol- 
lowed by  an  infinitive  mood,  a  phrase,  a  clause  of  a  sentence,  used 
rts  a  substantive  :  as,  "  We  ai w  about  to  depart^ — "  Honored  for 
having  done  his  duty^-^  "  The  crime  of  being  a  young  maTj."— [An.  A 
Pr.  Gft\  540.]     • 


PREPOSITIONS. 


77 


The  principal  words  of  this  class  are  contained  in  the  following- 
LIST  OF  PREPOSITIOXS. 


About 

Below 

From 

Through 

Above 

Beneath 

In 

Throughput 

Across 

Beside    ) 
Besides  ) 

Into 

Till 

Afkr 

Notwithstanding  To 

Against 

Between 

Of 

Touching 

Along 

Betwixt 

Off 

Toward    ) 
Towards  J" 

Amid     ) 
Amidst  ) 

Beyond 

On 

But 

Out  of 

Under 

Among     ) 
Amongst  J 

By 

Over 

Underneath 

Concerning 

Past 

Until 

Around 

Down 

Pending 

Unto 

At 

During 

Regarding 

Up 

Athwart 

Ere 

Respecting 

Upon 

Bating 

Except 

Round 

With 

Before 

Excepting 

Save 

Within 

Behind 

For 

Since 

Without 

OBSERVATIONS  OX  PREPOSITIONS. 

1.  Every  preposition  requires  the  noun  or  pronoun,  which  m  its  ob- 
ject, after  it  to  be  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  I  gave  the  paper  to  him. 
When  any  word  in  the  preceding  list  does  not  govern  an  objective 
case,  it  becomes  an  adverb  ;  as,  He  rides  about. 

2.  But,  in  such  phrases  as  cast  icp,  hold  out,  faU  on,  the  words  up, 
out,  on,  may  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  verb,  rather  than  as  pre- 
positions or  adverbs. 

3.  Of  the  words  related,  that  before  the  preposition  is  called  the 
antecedent  term  of  the  relation  ;  and  that  which  follows  it  is  called  the 
subsequent  term,  or  the  regimen  of  the  preposition,  because  governed 
by  it  in  the  objective  case. 

Parsing. — The  preposition  is  parsed  by  stat- 
ing what  part  of  speech  it  is,  and  the  words  be- 
tween which  it  shows  the  relation  ;  thus, 

"Before  honor  is  humility."  ^^  Before  ^^  is  a  preposition,  and 
shows  the  relation  between  "  honor,"  and  "  humility." 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  preposition?  In  what  case  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  after 
a  prepo-sitloii  V  When  an  objective  does  not  follow  a  preposition, 
whtit  p;iri.  Oi  speech  is  it  Jo  bo  considcnd?  "What  is  the  related 
x.o.d  i>ofo.c  the  pre;jOii:.on  cuIL-JV — the  one  after  il  ? 


78  INTRODUCTION    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  prepositions  in  the  following  exercises. 

2.  Point  out  the  noun  or  pronoun  after  the  preposition,  and  tho 
word  to  which  it  is  related ;  thus,  "  I  went  from  Albany  to  New 
York."  The  preposition  from,  stands  before  Albany,  and  shows  its 
relation  to  the  verb,  ^^went."  So  also,  to  stands  before  I^'ew  York^ 
and  shows  its  relation  to  "  wenty 

I  went  from  London  to  Bath.  The  king  walked  about 
the  garden  with  his  son.  They  dined  without  me.  I  fell 
off  a  ship  into  the  river  near  (to)  the  bridge.  This  box;  of 
wafers  is  for  you.  Charles  put  it  upon  the  table  against 
the  inkstand.  Turn  down  the  lane  through  the  gate.  I 
shall  go  up  the  road  after  him.  Run  to  that  tree  near  the 
bouse.  It  stands  between  the  trees.  Put  it  on  the  table 
at  the  side  of  the  house.  I  found  the  knife  among  the 
ashes  under  the  grate.  Sit  by  me.  John  is  at  schooL 
They  all  went  except  me. 

3.  Parse  the  words  in  preceding  Exercises. 


licssoii  33 — Interjections, 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  in  exclama- 
tions, to  express  some  emotion  of  the  mind , 
as,  Oh  !  what  a  sight  is  here  !   Well  done  ! 

A   LIST    OF   INTERJECTIONS. 

Adieu !  ah  !  alas !  alack  I  away !  aha !  be- 
gone !  hark !  ho  !  ha !  he  !  hail .  halloo !  hum ! 
hush  !  huzza !  hist !  heydey !  lo !  0  !  Oh !  0 
strange  !  0  brave  !  pshaw !  see  !  well-a-day  I 
&c. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  INTERJECTIONS. 

1.  The  Interjection  is  throvm  in  among  the  other  words  in  a  sen" 
tence,  but  does  not  affect  their  construction. 

2.  0  is  used  to  express  wishing  or  exclamation,  and  should  h^ 
prefixed  only  to  a  noun   or  a  pronoun,  in  a  direct  address ;  as,  "  0 


CONJUNCTIONS.  79 

virtue !  How  amiable  thou  art ! "  Oh  is  used  detached  from  the 
word,  with  a  point  of  exclamation  after  it.  It  implies  an  emotion  of 
pain,  sorrow,  or  surprise  ;  as,    "  Ok  I  what  a  sight  is  here." 

Parsing. — Interjections  are  parsed  by  nam- 
ing them  as  such,  stating  why,  and  the  emo- 
tion expressed. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What  is  an  Interjection  ?  Name  some  of  them.  Does  the  inter-^ 
jectiou  affect  the  construction  of  the  other  words  in  a  sentence  ? 
How  do  O  and  Oh  ditfer  in  meanhig?  How,  in  the  manner  of  writ-* 
ing  them?     How  are  interjections  parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  Interjections  in  the  Exercises, 

t.  Name  all  the  other  parts  of  speech,  and  parse  them. 

Hah !  I  am  glad  to  see  you.  Well-a-day  !  I  did  not 
expect  this.  Alas  !  I  am  ruined.  Indeed !  is  that  true  ? 
\yhat  1  is  it  possible  ?  Lo  !  there  he  is.  Hem  !  I  do  not 
think  so.  O  what  a  benefit  education  is  !  Ah !  you  are  a 
happy  fellow.  Hush  !  what  was  that  ?  Ha,  ha,  ha  !  how 
laughable  that  is  !  Ho  !  come  this  way.  Ah !  poor  fellow, 
he  is  to  be  pitied  Hurrah !  we  have  finished  our  lesson. 
Come !  now  for  the  next. 


lieslsoii  t^^,.— Conjunctions. 

A   Conjunction  is   a  word  which   connects 
words,  phrases,  or  sentences ;  as, 

*'  Yon  and  1  must'  study ;  hut  he  may  go  and  play."  "  Two  and 
two  make  four." 

Conjunctions  sometimes  begin  sentences ;  for  example,  see  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis. 

Conjunctions  are  of  two   kinds ;    Copulative 
and  Disjunctive.  ^ 


80  INTRODUCTION    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

A   LIST    OF    CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Copulative. — ^ALso,  and,  because,  both,  for, 
if,  since,  that,  then,  therefore,  wherefore. 

2.  Disjunctive. — Although,  as,  as  well  as, 
but,  either,  except,  lest,  neither,  nor,  notwith- 
standing, or,  provided,  so,  than,  though,  unless, 
W'hether,  yet,  still. 

Obs.  The  copulative  conjunctions  connect  things  that  are  to  be 
taken  together ;  as,  "You  and  I  (i.  e.  both  of  us)  must  go."  The 
disjunctive  conjunctions  connect  things  that  are  to  be  taken  separately^ 
or  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  rest ;  as,  "You  or  I  (i.  e.  the  one  or 
the  other,  but  not  both)  must  go." 

Paksing. — Conjunctions  are  parsed  by  stat- 
ing to  what  class  they  belong,  and  the  words 
or  sentences  which  they  join  together;  thus, 

"You  avd  I  must  study."  And  is  a  conjunction,  copulative,  and 
connects  You  and  /. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  a  conjunction?  How  many  kinds  of  conjunctions  are 
there?  What  are  the  copulative? — the  disjunctive?  How  do  these 
two  classes  differ?    How  are  conjunctions  parsed? 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  conjunctions  in  the  following  Exercise,  the  class 
to  which  each  belongs,  and  the  words  whicl)  they  connect. 

2.  Parse  all  the  words  in  order. 

Henry  and  Charles  read  their  lessons.  I  or  he  will  be 
there.  I  will  be  with  you  unless  you  call.  I  slept  well 
though  the  dog  barked.  Read  that  you  msy  learn.  John 
says  that  he  will  do  it.  As  he  writes,  so  do  I  read ;  for  I 
am  fond  of  reading.  Neither  the  boys  nor  the  girls  are 
asleep.  I  would  call  if  I  could,  but  I  can  not.  Take  care 
lest  you  fall.  Two  and  two  make  four.  He  is  better  than 
I  thought  he  was,  though  he  behaved  ill.     Since  that  has 


HOW    TO    DISTIXGUISU    THE    PARTS    OF    StPEEClI.       8l 

happened  I  must  go.     Do  to  others  as  you  would  that  thev 
should  do  to  you. 


Lesson  35. — Hoiv  to  distinguish  the  Parts  of 

Speech.  i 

1.  The  articles,  pronouns,  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  inteijec- 
tions,  are  so  few  in  number  that  they  may  be  easily  committed  to 
memory. 

2.  The  other  four,  namely,  the  noun,  adjective,  verb,  and  adverb, 
will  be  best  distinguished  by  comparing  their  meaning  and  use  with 
the  definitions  of  these  parts  of  speech  ia  their  place ;  thus, 

1st.  Every  v/ord  that  is  the  name  of  a  person  or  thing,  is  a  Noun;^^- 
cause  "  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing." 

2d.  A  word  that  qualifies  a  noun  by  describing,  limiting,  or  distin- 
guishing it,  is  an  adjective ;  because,  "An  adjective  is  a  word  used 
to  qualify  a  substantive." 

3d.  A  word  that  expresses  what  a  person  or  thing  does,  or  is,  or 
what  is  done  to  a  person  or  thing,  is  a  verb ;  because,  "  a  verb  is  ». 
word  used  to  express  the  act,  being,  or  state  of  its  subject."  • 

4th.  A  word  that  modifies  another  by  expressing  a  circumstance  of 
time,  place,  manner,  &c.  is  an  Adverb;  because  "An  adverb  &c." 
[See  definition.  Lesson  31.] 

3.  The  following  technical  method,  though  neither  very  accurate 
nor  certain,  may  assist  the  young  pupil  in  distinguishing  these  four 
parts  of  speech  ;  but  the  preceding  should  always  be  preferred. 

1st.  A  word  that  makes  sense  after  an  article,  or  the  phrase  '■'^  I  speak 

of,''^  is  a  Noun  ;  as,  A  man ;  I  speak  of  money. 
2d.  A  word  that  makes  sense  before  the  word  thing^  is  commonly  an 

Adjective  ;  as,  A  good  thing  ;  an  old  thing. 

3d.  A  Verb  makes  sense  with  /,  thou,  he,  or  to  before  it ;  as,  I  write  ; 
he  writes ;  to  teach. 

4th.  The  answer  to  the  question,  How?  When?  Where?  is  generallj 
an  Adverb  ;  as,  How  do  you  do  ?  Very  well.  When  did  you  arrive  ? 
Yesterday.     Where  is  your  book  ?  It  is  here. 

OBSERVATIOXS. 

1.  Many  words  are  sometimes  to  be  regarded  as  one  part  of  speech, 
and  sometimes  as  another,  according  to  their  meaning  and  use  in  the 
place  where  they  are  used;  thus, 

i  Demonstrative  Pronoim ;  as  "  Give  me  <Aa<  book."  * 

That,    <  Relative  Pronoun  ;  as,  "  It  is  the  same  that  I  bought." 

(  Conjunction ;  as,  I  am  glad  that  you  are  come." 


82  INTRODUCTION    TO    A^NALYTiCAL    GRAMMAR. 

(  Adverb ;  as,  "It  is  much  better  to  give  than  to  receive  ** 
Much,  4  Adjective;  as,  "In  7iiuch  wisdom  is  much  grief." 

(  Noun;  as,  "  Where  ?««t/(  is  given,  vmcli  is  required." 

(  Conjunction  ;  as,  "  Since  we  must  part." 
Since,  ^  Prepoution ;  /Since  that  time." 

(  Adverb  ;  as,  "  Your  friend  has  gone  long  since^ 

f  Conjunction ;  as,  "  Poor  but  honest." 
Prepo.ntioti ;  as,  "AlI6t(/one." 
Adverb;  as,  *'He  has  61^^  just  enough." 

2.  When  the  same  word  is  in  one  place  a  preposition,  and  in  au 
other  a  conjunction,  let  it  be  remembered  that  the  preposition  is  fol 
lowed  by  an  objective  case ;  the  conjunction  is  not. 

QUESTIONS. 

How  may  we  most  readily  distinguish  articles,  pronouns,  preposi- 
tions, conjunctions,  and  interjections  f  How  do  you  distinguisli  the 
noun  from  other  parts  of  speech? — the  adjective? — the  verb? — the 
adverb  ?  wf' 


Lesson  SG,— Parsing-, 

Parsing  is  the  resolving  of  a  sentence  into 
its  elements,  or  parts  of  speech.  Words  are 
parsed  two  ways ;  Etymologically  and  Syntac- 
tically, 

1.  In  Etymological  parsing  the  pupil  is  required  to  state  the  part 
of  speech  to  which  a  word  belongs,  and  to  describe  it  by  its  accidtnts 
and  use.^. 

2.  In  Syntactical  parsing,  the  pupil  is  required,  besides  parsing  the 
•word  etymologically,  to  state  its  relation  to  other  words  in  the  sen- 
tence, and  the  rules  by  which  these  relations  are  governed. 

N.  B.  Before  proceeding  to  Syntax,  the  pupil  should  be  expert  tD 
etymological  parsing.  This  he  can  hardly  fail  to  be,  if  he  has  at- 
tended, in  the  manner  directed,  to  the  exercises  already  given.  The 
reading  lessons  in  the  spelling  book,  or  sentences  troni  any  plain 
writer,  may  now  be  analyzed  and  parsed  as  already  directed.  To 
assist  further  in  this,  observe  the  following 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES. 

In  order  to  parse  a  sentence,  it  is  ne- 
cessary   to    understand    its    proper 


J 


HOAV   TO   DISTINGUISH    THE    PAIITS   OF    SPEECH.         83 

Then,  in  parsing  it,  let  tlie  following  general 
principles  be  remembered,  viz. 

1.  Every  Article,  Adjective,  Adjective  pronoun,  or  Participle,  be- 
longs to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood. 

2.  The  subject  of  a  verb,  i.  e.,  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of,  ia 
usually  in  the  nominative,  and  is  said  to  be  the  "  nominative  to  the 
verb." 

2.  Every  noun  or  pronoun,  in  the  nominative  case,  when  spoken 
of,  is  tlie  subject  of  a  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  i.  e.,  it  is  that 
of  which  the  verb  affirms.     To  this  there  are  a  few  exceptions. 

Obs. —  A.  word  is  expressed,  when  it  appears  in  the  sentence;  ii  is 
understood,  when  it  is  implied  but  does  not  appear.  Thus,  Mary'a 
paper  is  white,  but  John's  is  brown;"  in  the  first  clause  of  the  sen- 
Buce^^paper^^is  expressed,  in  the  last  it  is  understood. 

4.  Every  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  or  subjunctive  mood, 
must  have  a  nominative  or  subject  expressed  or  understood,  i.  e., 
something  of  which  it  affirms. 

5.  Every  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  and  every  preposition, 
governs  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case  ;  and  every  object- 
ive case  is  governed  by  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  by  a 
preposition. 

6.  Every  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  governed  by  a  verb  or  ad- 
jective; sometimes  by  a  noun;  and  sometimes  it  stands  after  the 
conjunction,  than  or  as. 

QUESTIONS. 

"What  is  parsing  ?  How  many  kinds  of  parsing  are  there  ?  "What 
is  done  in  etymological  parsing  ? — in  syntactical  parsing  ?  What  is 
necessary  before  parsing  a  sentence  ?  To  what  does  every  article, 
adjective,  &c,,  belong?  In  what  case  is  the  subject  of  a  verb? 
When  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  nominative  case  is  spoken  of,  what 
must  it  have  ?  What  must  every  verb  in  the  indicative,  potential,  or 
subjunctive  mood,  have?  What  case  does  every  transitive  verb  in 
the  active  voice,  and  every  preposition,  have  after  it?  By  what  is 
the  objective  case  always  governed?  When  a  verbis  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  by  what  is  it  governed  ? 

For  the  answer  to  the  following  questions,  go  back  to  the  pages 
indicated. 

How  is  a  noun  parsed?  p.  18. — an  article?  p,  21. — an  adjective? 
p.  25. — a  pronoun?  pp.  28,  32,  34. — a  verb?  p.  58. — an  adverb?  p. 
75. — a  preposition ?  p.  77. — an  interjection?  p.  79. — a  conjunction? 
p.  80.  Parse  all  these  as  directed  iu  the  places  referred  to,  and  as 
described  in  the  next  Lesson. 


84  INTROiyUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR* 


liesson  37. — Model  of  Etymological  Parsing, 

"Give  instruction  to  a  wise  man,  and  he  will  be  yet 

wiser." 

"Give"|s  a  verb,  transitive,  irregular;  give,  gave^  given;  in  the  im- 
perative, active,  second  person,  singular.  Its  subject  is  thou 
understood,  and  its  object,  instruction. 

"Instruction"  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular;  the  object 
of  give.* 

"To"  is  a  preposition;  it  points  out  the  relation  between  its  object, 
W2a7i,  and  give. 

"A"  is  an  article,  indefinite,  belongs  to  man. 

"Wise"  is  an  adjective;  compared,  wise,  wiser,  wisest:  and  ex- 
presses a  quality  of  man. 

"Man"  is  a  noun,  masculine,  in  the  objective  singular;  pi.  men. 

*'And"  is  a  conjunction,  and  connects  the  clauses. 

'*He"  is  a  pronoun  of  the  third  person,  mascuUne,  in  the  nominative 
singular;  the  subject  of  will  be,  and  stands  for  man. 

"  Will  be "  is  a  verb,  intransitive,  irregular ;  am,  was,  been ;  in  the 
future,  indicative,  third  person,  singular,  and  affirms  of  its 
subject,  he. 

"Yet"  is  an  adverb,  modifying  vdser. 

*' Wiser  "is  an  adjective,  comparative  degree;  tvise,  wiser,  wisest; 
and  belongs  to  7nan,  or  is  predicated  of  he. 

As  a  further  exercise,  the  pupil  may  be  re- 
quired to  give  a  reason  for  every  thing  affirmed 
in  the  preceding  model ;  thus, 

Why  do  you  say  that  give  is  a  verb  ?  Why  transitive  ?  Why 
irregular?  Why  thfe  imperative?  Why  the  second  person ?  Why 
singular  ? 

Why  do  you  say  that  instruction  is  a  noun  ?  Why  neuter  ?  Why 
smgulur?     Why  the  objective  ?  &c. 


*  The  person  and  class  of  the  noun  are  omitted  for  reasons  stated, 
Illustration,  p.  12. 


EXERCISES   IN   PARSING.  85 

Exercises  in  Parsing. 

After  the  same  manner  as  in  the  preceding 
Lesson,  parse  and  practice  on  the  following 
Exercises. 

MAXIMS  FOR  YOUNG  AND  OLD. 

I-  EA.RI.T  Piety. — Remember  now  tliy  Creator  in  the 
days  of  thy  youth ;  while  the  evil  days  come  not,  nor  the 
J^'drs  draw  nigh,  when  thou  shaU  say,  I  have  no  pleasure 
in  them. 

Children,  obey  your  parents:  honor  thy  father  and 
mother,  is  the  first  commandment  with  promise. 

A  wise  son  heareth  a  father's  instruction,  but  a  scorner 
heareth  not  rebuke.  The  eye  that  mocketh  at  his  father, 
and  despiseth  to  obey  his  mother,  the  ravens  of  the  valley 
shall  pluck  out,  and  the  young  eagles  shall  eat  it.  A  wise 
son  maketh  a  glad  father,  but  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness 
of  his  mother.  AYho.>o  loveth  instruction  loveth  knowledge, 
but  he  that  hateth  reproof  is  brutish. 

II.  Education. — Train  up  a  child  in  the  way  he  should 
go,  and  when  he  is  old  he  will  not  depart  from  it. 

Quintilian  recommends  to  all  parents  the  timely  educa- 
iion  of  their  children  i  advising  to  train  them  up  in  learn- 
ing, good  manners,  and  virtuous  exercises ;  since  we  com- 
monly retain  those  things  in  age  which  we  entertained  in 
youth. 

'Tis  education  forms  the  common  mind; 
Just  as  the  twig  is  bent,  the  tree  's  inclined. 

An  industriotis  and  virtuous  education  of  children  is  a 
better  inheritance  for  them  than  a  great  estate. 

Til.  Prosperity  and  Adversity. — If  I  muFt  make 
choice  either  of  continual  prosperity  or  adversity,  I  would 
choose  the  latter ;  for  in  adversity  no  good  man  can  want 
comfort,  v.'hereas,  in  prosperity,  most  men  want  discretion. 


PART   III— SYNTAX. 

liesson  38. — Analysis  of  Sentences. 

Syntax  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats 
of  the  proper  arrangement  and  connection  of 
words  in  a  sentence. 

A  Proposition  is  a  single  statement  or  aflBrraatipn ;  as, 
^^  Bees  make  honey T — "/i  will  be  cold  in  winter^ 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  expresses 
a  tliouglit  and  makes  complete  sense  ;*  as,  John  studies. — 
He  will  leave  to-morrow. — Buy  the  book,  if  it  is  a  good  one, 
— Go  to  school  early. — Do  you  go  to  school? 

A  Clause  is  a  sentence  used  in  another  sentence  to  limit 
it,  or  any  part  of  it ;  as,  If  John  studies,  he  will  improve. 
See  Lesson  4*7. 

A  Phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together, 
but  not  making  complete  sense  ;  as,  "Jn  truthy  he  did  it." 
— "  To  say  the  least,  I  saw  four  men." 

A  Substantive  Phrase  is  one  which,  in  the  construction  of  a  sen- 
tence, is  equivalent  to  a  noun  or  siibstantive,  being  (I)  the  subject  of 
a  verb ;  as.  "  To  do  good  is  to  be  liappy."  (2)  Tlie  object  of  a  transi- 
tive active  verb ;  as,  "7b  do  good,  forget  not."  (3)  The  ol^ect  of  a 
preposition;  as,  ^' By  pursuing  this  course,  lie  succeeded."  (4)  The 
attribute  after  an  attributive  verb ;  an,  '•  He  appears  to  he  doing  weli." 

An  Adjunct  is  a  preposition  with  its  regimen  or  subse- 
quent term  as  related  to  its  principal  or  antecedent  term; 
as,  "The  waters  of  Jordan  ;"  "  They  came  to  Corinth" 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following,  which  are  propositions  ? — which  are  sentences  ?— 
which  are  clauses  ? — which  are  phrases  ? — which  are  adjuncts  ? 

Ice  is  cold.  In  truth.  God  is  good.  Life  is  short,  and  it 
should  be  well  improved.  Truth  will  prevail.  Birds  sleep 
in  the  open  air,  and  awake  early  in  the  morning.  To  be 
sure.  The  grass  of  the  prairies  is  good  food  for  cattle. 
How  many  men  were  there  ?     Listen  to  good  advice. 

*  The  word  "  proposition"  refers  to  the  thought ;  sentence  refers 
to  the  language  which  expresses  the  thought. 


PARTS    OF   A  SENTENCE.  87 


liesson  39. — Parts  of  a  Sentence. 

The  sentence  or  proposition  consists  of  two 
parts, — the  Subject  and  the  Predicate. 

1.  The  Subject  is  that  of  which  the  affirmation  is  made ; 
as,  "X//e  is  short." 

The  subject  of  a  verb  or  sentence  is  commonly  a  noun  or  pronoun^ 
an  infinitive  mood,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence ;  as,  God  is  good ;  he  does 
good. — To  be  a  good  scholar  is  an  honor.     Lesson  22,  Obs.  6,  page  50. 

2.  The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  as,  "  Life  is  shortJ^ 

The  predicate  properly  consists  of  two  parts — the  attri^ 
hute  affirmed  of  the  subject,  and  the  copula,  by  which  the 
affirmation  is  made.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "God  is  love," 
God  is  the  subject,  and  is  love  is  the  predicate,  in  which 
love  is  the  attribute,  and  w,  the  copula. 

The  attribute  and  copula  are  often  expressed  by  one  word,  which 
in  that  case  must  be  a  verb;  as,  "The  fire  6Mr«5,"=:"The  fire  is 
burning.'^    Hence — 

The  attribute  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun,  an  adjective,  a  preposition 
with  its  case,  an  adverb,  an  infinitive,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  connected 
always  with  tlie  subject  by  an  attributive  verb  as  a  lopula  (604). 

The  attributive  verbs  are  such  as  be,  become,  seem,  &c.,  and  the 
passive  forms  of  deem,  call,  name,  consider,  &c.,  (606.) 

The  Verb  of  the  predicate  is  called  the  Apfirmer. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following,  which  are  sentences  ?  and  which  are  propositions  t 
and  why  ? 

Mention  the  affirmer  of  each  predicate — the  attribute — the  copula. 
Mention  the  subject  of  each — the  predicate  of  each. 

Snow  is  white.  Ice  is  always  cold.  Birds  fly.  Home 
should  be  pleasant.  The  fields  are  green  in  the  springy.  Be 
sure  that  truth  will  prevail.  Does  he  go  to  school  ?  To 
learn  a  lesson  well  is  commendable.  The  man  saw  hira. 
Horses  eat  hay.     John  and  Jane  will  come  if  invited. 


88  INTRODUCTION  TO  ANALYTICAL  GEAMMAE. 

liesson  40, — Classes  of  Sentences, 

I.  Sentences  as  to  the  Form  of  the  affirma- 
tion or  mode  of  expressing  it,  are  divided  into 
four  classes,  viz.  : 

Declaratory,  or  such  as  declare  a  thing ;  as,  "  God  is  love." 
Interrogatory ,  or  such  as  ask  a  question  ;  as,  ''  Lovest  thou  me  ?" 
Imperative,  or  such  as  express  a  command ;  as,  "  John,  go  home." 
Exclamatory^  or  such  as  contain  an  exclamation  ;  as,  "  See  how  he 
runs  1" 

II.  Sentences  are  Transitive,  Intransitive,  or  Attributive, 
according  to  the  kind  of  verbs  in  them.  See  Less,  16, 
page  36. 

III.  As  to  the  Number  of  Propositions,  they 
are  divided  into  two  classes,  Single  and  Com- 
pound. . 

A  Single  Sentence  expresses  only  one  proposition ;  as, 
"John  runs." — "John  runs  faster  than  the  dog."— "I  will 
go  if  the  sun  shin  us." 

A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  single 
sentences  united  together;  as,  "John  runs  and  James 
walks" — "  John  caught  the  dog,  brought  it  home,  and  put 
it  in  the  yard." 

EXERCISES. 

State  which  of  the  following  sentences  are  single,  which  compound, 
and  of  each  vvlieiher  Declaratory,  Interrogatory,  Imperative,  or  Ex- 
clamatory, and  why  ? 

Birds  fly.  Do  any  fish  fly  ?  He  is  a  gentleman  and  a 
schplar.  Bring  me  the  book  and  I  will  lead  it.  Write  to 
me.  Ah  !  I  see  it.  The  tide  rises  twice  in  twenty-four 
hours.  The  land  is  good,  but  the  buildings  are  aid.  Do 
vou  intend  to  buy  the  farm  ?  Yes ;  and  I  shall  build  a 
bouse  on  it.  By  improving  the  land  I  shall  have  better 
crops.  Who  made  the  noise  ?  Charles,  sir.  The  man  in 
the  boat  caught  fishes  and  crabs. 


THE   SUBJECT.  89 

£<es§OII  41. — Single  Sentences. 

Single  Sentences  (expressing  only  one  com- 
plete proposition)  are  of  three  kinds;  viz..  Sim- 
ple, Single,  and  Complex, 

1.  A  Simple  Sentence  contains  but  one  subject,  one 
affirmer,  and,  if  transitive  or  attributive,  one  object  or 
attribute  ;  as,  Horses  run. — John  strikes  Thomas. — Sugar 
is  sweet. — The  boy  read  (the  paper). 

The  Simple  Sentence  may  be  enlarged — 1.  Bj  an  adjunct  word  or 
phrase  in  any  or  all  of  its  parts ;  as,  "  Wise  men  use  rightly  their 
lime."  2.  By  the  substitution  of  a  claiLse  for  its  subject,  object,  or 
attribute ;  as,  "  To  he  angry  is  to  be  mad." 

2.  The  Single  Sentence^  in  expressing  one  proposition, 
may  have  two  or  more  subjects,  affirmers,  objects^  or  attri- 
butes, and  any  or  all  of  these  may  be  compound  ;  as,  "  Time 
and  tide  wait  for  no  man." 

3.  The  Complex  Sentence  is  a  single  sentence  containing 
a  subordinate  or  dependent  clause  which  limits  the  principal 
clause  ;  as,  "  The  boy  who  studies  will  excel." — "  We  will 
go  when  the  train  leaves. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following,  which  are  simple  sentences?  which  are  single 
sentences  with  compound  subject  ?  with  compound  predicate  ?  which 
are  complex  sentences,  and  why  ? 

Grass  is  green.  Wood  and  coal  will  burn.  Coal  burns, 
but  not  so  fast  as  wood.  He  can  read  and  write  well.  I 
will  finish  the  work  when  you  wish  me.  If  the  road  is 
good,  we  can  travel  fast.     I  said  so,  but  you  did  not  hear. 


Lession  4S. — The  Subject. 

I.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  or  sentence  is 
either  grammatical  or  logical. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken 
of,  unlimited  by  other  words  ;  as,  "  Horses  are  strong." 


90  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

The  logical  subject  is  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of)  together  with, 
all  the  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  by  which  it  is  limited  or  defined. 
Thus;  in  the  sentence,  "Every  man  at  his  best  estate  is  vanity," — 
the  grammatical  subject  is  "  Tnan ;"  the  logical  is,  "  Every  man  at  his 
best  estate.^' 

A  relative  clause  which  limits  a  grammatical  subject  is  called  an 
adjective  adjunct ;  as,  "  The  boy  who  studies  will  improve." — {Studious 
boy.)     (Less.  47,  page  95.) 

When  the  grammatical  subject  has  no  limiting  words  connected 
with  ir,  tlien  it  and  the  logical  subject  are  the  same;  as,  "  GOD  is 
good." — "Birds  sing  sweetly  in  the  spring." 

II.  The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  either 
simple  or  compound. 

A  simple  subject  consists  of  one  subject  of  thought;  as, 
Snow  is  white.     Tlie  boiler  of  the  steamboat  exploded. 

A  compound  subject  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sub- 
jects, to  which  belongs  but  one  predicate  ;  as,  You  and  1 
are  friends. — Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. — Two  2iXidi 
three  are  five. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  which  is  the  grammatical,  and  which 
the  logical  subject?  State  whether  simple  or  compound — limited  or 
urdimiied.  Distinguish  the  grammatical  and  the  logical  subjects. 
Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  each. 

The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom.  All 
men  have  not  faith.  The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed. 
Happy  is  the  man^that  findeth  wisdom.  The  blessing  of 
the  Lord  maketh  rich.  Wise  men  lay  up  knowledge.  The 
rich  and  the  poor  meet  together.  Wealth  makes  many 
friends.  James  and  John  are  cousins.  A  grnmrnatical 
subject  is  unlimited.  Some  dogs  are  savage.  The  white 
horse  died. 


liesson  43. — Modifications  of  the  Subject, 

A  grammatical  subject,  being  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun, may  be  modified,  limited,  or  described  in 
various  ways  ;  as, 


MODIFICATION    OF   THE   MODIFYING   WORDS.  91 

1.  By  a  noun  in  apposition  (668) ;  as,  "  Milton  the  poet  was  blind." 

2.  By  a  noun  in  the  possessive  ease ;  as,  ^^Aaron's  rod  budded." 

3.  By  an  adjunct;  as,  "The  works  of  Nature  are  beautiful." 

4.  By  an  adjective  word  (i.e.,  an  article,  adjective,  adjective  pro- 

uoun,  or  participle);  as,  "A  good  name  is  better  than  riches," 

5.  By  a  relative  and  its  clause ;  as,  *'  He  wlio  does  no  good,  does 

harm," 

6.  By  an  infinitive  mood ;  as,  "  A  desire  to  learn  is  praiseworthy." 

7.  By  a  clause  of  a  sentence;  as,  "  The  fact  tfiat  he  was  a  scholar, 

was  manifest," 

8.  Each  grammatical  subject  may  have  several  modifications ;  as, 
"  Several  stars  of  less  magnitude  which  we  had  Tiot  observed  be/ore  now 
appeared." 

When  the  grammatical  subject  is  an  infinitive,  or  a  participle  used 
as  a  noun,  it  may  be  modified  like  the  verb  in  the  predicate.  (Lesson 
46.) 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  grammatical  subject — ^the 
logical — and  state  how  the  grammatical  subject  is  modified. 

A  wise  man  foreseeth  evil.  Wisdom's  ways  are  pleas- 
antness. Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing.  He  that 
walketh  uprightly  walketh  surely.  Nature  does  nothing  in 
vain.  Socrates  the  philosopher  died  by  poison.  A  desire 
to  excel  will  stimulate  to  exertion. 


liCSSon  44. — Modifications  of  the  Modifying  Words. 

Modifying  or  limiting  words  may  themselves 
be  modified. 

1.  A  noun  modifying  another  may  itself  be  modified  in  all  the 

ways  in  which  a  noun,  being  a  grammatical  subject,  is  modi- 
fied, 

2.  An  adjective  qualifying  a  noun  may  itself  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adjunct ;  as,  "  Be  a  just  man  in  your  dealings." 

2.  By  an  adverb ;  as,  "A  truly  good  man  hates  evil," 

3.  By  an  infinitive ;  as,  "  Be  swift  to  hear,  slow  to  speakJ^ 

3.  An  adverb  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  an  adjunct;  as,  "Agreeably  to  Nature." 

2.  By  another  adverb ;  as,  "  Tours  very  sincerely." 


tJ  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

A  modified  grammatical  subject  regarded  as  a  complex  idea,  may 
itself  be  modified;  as,  "The  old  hlack  horse  is  dead;"  "The  first 
two  lines  are  good  (689)." 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  by  what  words  are  the  modifying  nouns 
modified? — the  adjectives? — the  adverbs? 

Great  wealth  properly  used  is  a  blessing.  The  very  best 
remedy  for  certain  evils  is  exercise.  Truly  great  men  are 
far  above  worldly  pride.  Your  very  kind  letter  has  been 
received.     The  river  flows  very  rapidly. 


liesson  45. — The  Predicate. 

I.  The  predicate,  like  the  subject,  is  either 
grammatical  or  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  consists  of  the  attribute  and 
copula^  not  modified  by  other  words. 

The  attribute,  which  together  with  the  copula  forms  the  predicate, 
may  be  expressed  by  a  noun  or  pronoun — James  is  a  scholar — James 
is  he;  an  adjective — James  is  diligent;  a, participle — ^James  i^ learned; 
a  preposition  with  its  regimen — James  is  in  health ;  and  sometimes  an 
adverb — John  is  not  so. 

The  attribute  is  also  expressed  by  an  infinitive  or  a  dependent 
clause ;  as,  "  To  obey  is  to  enjoy y — "  The  order  is  that  we  viust  go.'''' 

The  logical  predicate  is  the  grammatical,  together  with  all  the 
words  and  phrases  and  clauses  that  modify  ic : — Thus,  "  Nero  was 
cruel  to  his  subjects  " — grammatical  predicate,  "  was  cruel " — logical^ 
"  was  cruel  to  his  subjects. 

When  the  grammatical  predicate  has  no  modifying  terras  connected 
with  it,  the  grammatical  and  logical  predicates  are  the  same;  as, 
"  Life  is  short:'—''  Time  files:' 

II.  The  predicate,  like  the  subject,  is  either 
simple  or  compound, 

A  simple  predicate  ascribes  to  its  subject  but  one  attri- 
bute;  as,  "  Truth  is  great:* 

A  compound  predicate  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
predicates,  affirmed  of  the  same  subject  ;  as,  "  Truth  is 
great  and  will  prevail." 


MODIFICATIONS   OF  THE  PEEDICATE.  93 


EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  name  the  subject  and  the  predicate- 
state  whether  the  predicate  is  simple  or  compound — tell  what  is  the 
grammatical,  and  what  is  the  logical  predicate. 

The  wind  blows.  The  fire  burns.  Man  is  mortal. 
Wisdom  is  the  principal  thinor.  He  that  tiileth  his  land 
shall  be  satisfied  with  bread.  The  way  of  a  fool  is  right  in 
his  own  eyes.  A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath.  The 
fields  are  green.  Caesar  came,  saw,  and  conquered.  Joha 
reads  and  writes  well.  The  cities  of  the  enemy  were  plun- 
dered and  burned  to  the  ground.  The  night  was  dark  and 
rainy.     He  is  a  colonel  in  the  regular  army. 


liessoil  46. — Modifications  of  the  Predicate. 

i  grammatical  predicate  may  be  modified  or 
limited  in  various  ways. 

When  the  attribute  in  the  grammatical  predi- 
cate is  a  noun,  it  is  modified — 

1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  or  describing  the  attribute ;  as, 

"  He  is  John  the  Baptist.^'' — "  He  is  my  friend." — "  He  is  my 
fathers  friend." 

2.  By  an  adjective  or  participle  limiting  the  attribute ;  as,  "  Solo- 

mon was  a  wise  king." 

When  the  affirmer  (Less.  39)   contains  the 
attribute,  it  may  be  modified — 

1.  By  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  objective  case,  as  the  object  of  the 

verb ;  as,  "  We  love  Am." — "John  reads  Horner.''^ 

2.  By  an  adverb ;  as,  '*  John  reads  welV 

3.  By  an  adjunct ;  as,  "  They  Mve  in  London.''^ 

4.  By  an  infinitive ;  as,  "  Boys  love  to  play. '^ 

5.  By  a  dependent  clause ;  as,  "  Plato  taught  that  the  soul  is  im- 

mortaiy 
An  infinitive  or,  participle  may  be  modified  in  all  respects  as  th» 
verb  in  the  predicate. 


94  INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

A  modifying  clause,  if  a  dependent  proposition,  may  be  modified  in 
both  its  subject  and  predicate  as  other  propositions. 

All  other  modifying  words  may  themselves  be  modified,  as  Similar 
words  are,  when  modifying  the  subject. 

Several  modifications  are  sometimes  connected  with  the  same  pre- 
dicate J  as,  "  He  reads  a  good  book  carefully  every  evening." 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  distinguish  the  grammatical  predicate — 
state  whether  the  attribute  is  a  noun,  or  whether  it  is  contained  in 
the  aflfirmer  or  verb — state  how  it  is  modified. 

His  father  and  mother  are  dead  ;  they  died  a  year  ago. 
Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps.  Livy  and  Tacitus  were  Roman 
historians.  His  intention  was  to  destroy  the  fleet.  Time 
flies  rapidly.  Sincerity  and  truth  are  the  basis  of  every 
virtue.     I  wish  that  he  would  come  soon. 


liesson  47. — Limiting  Clauses. 

Clauses  limiting  single  sentences,  or  the  mem- 
bers of  compound  sentences,  may  be  classified 
as  to  their  office  into  substantive^  adnominal,  and 
adverbial. 

1.  A  SUBSTANTIVE  clausG  performs  the  office  of  a  noun ;  as,  "  That 
I  said  so  is  most  true." — "  He  loves  to  do  rights 

2.  An  ADNOMINAL  clause  limits  like  an  adjective;  as,  "The  boy 
who  studies  will  improve." — "  The  master  directed  him  to  sivdy.'^ — 
^^Admired,  he  became  vain." 

3.  An  ADVERBIAL  clause  performs  the  office  of  an  adverb;  as,  "He 
goes  to  school  to  learn." — "  He  is  wiser  than  his  brother." 

The  clause  on  which  another  depends  is  called  the  leading  clause, 
its  subject  the  leading  subject,  and  its  predicate  the  leading  predicate. 

In  a  complex  single  sentence,  the  dependent 
clauses  are  usually  connected  by  relatives,  con- 
junctive adverbs,  or  conjunctions  ;  thus — 

Belative. — "  The  apples  that  are  in  the  basket  are  sold." 
(Conjunctive  Adverb. — "  We  shall  go  when  the  cfars  go." 
Conjunction. — "  The  miser  lives  poor  that  he  may  die  rich." 


COMPOUND   SENTENCES.  95 

The  connecting  word  is  sometimes  omitted ;  as,  "  This  is  the  book 
(which)  I  lost." 

A  complex  sentence  may  sometimes  be  converted  into  a  simple  one 
by  abridging  its  dependent  clause. 

A  dependent  cUuuse  is  frequently  abridged  by  omitting  the  connect- 
ing word  and  changing  the  verb  of  the  predicate  into  a  participle  or 
intinitive:  as,  "When  we  have  finished  our  lessons,  we  will  play — 
Abridged,  "  Having  finished  our  lessons,  we  will  play." 

When  the  dependent  clause  is  the  object  of  the  verb  in  the  leading 
clause,  it  may  often  be  changed  for  the  infinitive  with  a  subject ;  as, 
"  I  know  that  he  is  a  scholar  " — Abridged,  '*  I  know  him  to  be  a 
scholar.'' 

When  in  such  cases,  the  subject  of  the  dependent  clause  is  the  same 
as  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause,  it  is  omitied  in  the  abridged 
form  ;  as,  '•  I  wished  that  I  might  go  " — Abridged,  "  I  wished  to  go^ 

A  dependent  clause  may  be  abridged  by  substituting  an  equivalent 
qualifying  word  or  an  adjunct ;  as,  "  The  man  who  is  honest  will  be 
respected  " — Abridged,  "■  The  honest  man  will  be  respected." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Abridge  the  following  propositions : — 

When  our  work  is  finished,  we  will  play.  When  I  had 
visited  Europe,  I  returned  to  America.  It  is  said,  that 
"  the  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil ;"  daily  observa- 
tion shows  that  it  is  so. 

2.  Extend  the  following  abridged  propositions  : — 

Time  past  can  never  be  recalled.  The  road  leading  to 
the  castle  was  blocked  np.  I  know  it  to  be  genuine.  You 
know  him  to  be  your  friend.  We  hold  these  principles  to 
be  self-evident.  His  being  successful  is  doubtful.  The 
war  being  ended,  trade  revived. 


liesson  48. —  Compound  Sentences. 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
single  sentences  or  propositions  connected  to- 
gether ;  as,  "  The  man  walked  and  the  boy 

ran." 

5 


'96  INTRODUCTION  TO   ANALYTICAL  GEAMMAB. 

The  propositions  which  make  up  a  compound 
sentence  are  called  members. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  grammatically  independ- 
ent of  each  other ;  each  will  make  sense  by  itself. 

The  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  connected  by  such  con- 
junctions as  and,  or,  nor,  hut,  yet,  &c. ;  as,  "  The  harvest  is  passed, 
the  summer  is  ended,  and  we  are  not  saved." 

In  such  sentences,  the  connective  is  often  omitted. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  state  which  are  single,  and  which 
are  compound.    In  the  compound  sentences  point  out  the  members. 

We  may  not  always  have  time  to  read,  but  we  always 
have  time  to  reflect.  Time  passes  quickly,  though  it  ap- 
pears to  move  slowly.  Care  for  yourself,  and  others  will 
care  for  you.  The  eyes  of  the  Lord  are  in  every  place  be- 
holding the  evil  and  the  good.  Righteousness  exalteth  a 
nation,  but  sin  is  a  reproacli  to  any  people.  John  is  taller 
than  I,  though  I  am  older  than  he. 

2.  In  the  following  compound  sentences,  name  the  members — name 
the  connecting  words. 

The  weather  was  fine  and  the  roads  were  excellent,  but 
we  were  unfortunate  in  our  companions.  Beauty  attracts 
admiration,  as  honor  (attracts)  applause.  Time  is  ever  ad- 
vancing, and  leaves  behind  it  no  traces  of  its  flight.  When 
I  was  a  child  I  spake  as  a  child,  but  when  I  became  a  man 
I  put  away  childish  things.  This  we  know,  that  our  future 
depends  on  our  present.  He  may  go  or  he  may  stay.  He 
was  not  a  good  speaker,  yet  he  was  an  admirable  writer. 


liesson  49. — Directions  for  Analysis. 

State  whether  the  sentence  is  single  or  compound ;   also  whether 
declaratory,  interrogatory,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

If  single,  name  the  logical  subject,  and  the  logical  predicate. 

Namo  the  grammatical  subject. 


MODELS   OF  ANALYSIS.  ^7 

Show  by  what  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if  any,  the  grammatical 

subject  is  modified  in  the  logical. 
Show  by  what  modifying  words,  if  any,  each  modifying  word  is 

modified. 
Name  the  grammatical  predicate. 

Show  by  what  words  or  phrases,  if  any,  it  is  modified  in  the  logical. 
Show  by  what  modifying  words,  phrases,  or  clauses,  if  any,  each 

modifynig  word  is  modified. 
If  the  sentence  is  compound,  mention  the  members. 
Show  how  the  members  are  connected. 
Analyze  each  member  as  a  single  sentence,  by  showing  its  subject, 

predicate,  &c.,  as  above. 

N.  B. — In  analyzing  sentences,  it  will  be  necessary  always  to 
supply  words  left  out  by  elhpsis,  and  to  supply  the  antecedent  to 
the  relative  what,  and  to  the  compound  relatives  w/ioever,  whosoever, 
whatever,  whatsoever ;  making  also  the  change  which  is  necessary  in 
the  relatives  themselves,  when  the  antecedent  is  supplied  (266). 

Models  of  Analysis, 

1.  God  is  good. 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  simple  because  it  contains  a  single  affirma- 
tion ;  declaratory  because  it  declares  something. 

God  is  the  logical  subject,  because  it  is  that  of  which  the  quality  good 
is  affirmed. 

Is  good  is  the  logical  predicate,  because  it  affirms  a  quality  of  its  sub- 
ject.    Is  is  the  verb  or  copula,  and  good  is  the  attribute. 

In  this  sentence,  the  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same 
as  the  logical,  because  they  are  not  modified  by  other  words. 

Or,  more  briefly,  thus  : — The  logical  subject  is  God.  The  logical 
predicate  is  is  good,  in  which  is  is  the  verb  or  copula,  and  good  the 
attribute.  The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as 
the  logical. 

2.  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 
This  is  a  single  sentence,  simple,  declaratory. 

The  logical  subject  is  The  fear  of  the  Lord. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  fear.  It  is  limited  by  the  adjunct,  of  the 
Lord,  and  shown  to  be  limited  by  the  article  the.     (Lesson  43.) 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  is  beginning,  in  which  is  is  the  verb  or 
copula,  and  beginning  the  attribute.  It  is  modified  by  the  adjunct 
of  wisdom,  and  shown  to  be  Umited  by  the.     (Lesson  46.) 


98  INTRODUCTION  TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAB. 

3.  Two  and  two  make  four. 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  declaratory,  with  a  compound  subject. 

The  logical  subject  is  two  and  tvjo,  compound. 

The  logical  predicate  is  make  four. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  make;  it  is  moditied  by  its  object /our. 

4.  Will  the  king  fight  and  not  conquer? 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  interrogative,  with  a  compound  predicate. 
The  logical  subject  is  the  king. 

The  logical  predicate  is  will  fight  and  not  conquer,  compound. 
The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 
The  first  grammatical  predicate  is  wiU  fight ;  the  second  is  not  conr 
quer ;  they  are  connected  by  and. 

5.  Remember  tiow  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth. 
This  is  a  simple  sentence,  imperative. 

The  logical  subject  is  thou  understood. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  logical  predicate  is  Bememher  now  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy 
youth. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  Remember.  It  is  modiSed  by  noio,  an 
adverb  of  time,  also  by  its  ouj.>ct  Creator,  limited  by  the  possessive 
adjective  pronoun  thy.  It  is  farther  modified  by  the  adjuncts  in. 
the  days  of  thy  youth.  In  the  first"  of  these  adjuncts,  the  term  days 
is  limited  by  the  second  adjunct,  and  shown  to  be  so  by  the  definite 
article  the. 

6.  "A  good  man  does  what  (=:that  which)  is  right,  from 
principle. 

This  is  a  single  sentence,  complex,  containing  one  leading  affirmation 

and  one  dependent  clause,  connected  by  tvhich 
The  logical  subject  of  the  whole  sentence  is  A  good  man;  the  logical 

predicate  is  does  ivhat  is  right  from  principle. 
The  leading  affirmation  is  A  good  man  does  that  from  principle. 
The  dependent  clause  is  which  is  right,  and  is  restrictive  of  that  in  the 

leading  proposition,  the  antecedent  to  which,  the  connecting  word. 
In  the  first  or  leading  clause — 
The  logical  subject  is  A  good  man. 
The  logical  predicate  is  cbes  that  from  principle. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  man,  qualified  by  good,  and  shown  to  be 

indefinite  by  a. 
The  grammatical  predicate  is  does,  modified  by  its  object  that,  and  the 

adjunct  from  principle  ;  that  is  modified  by  the  relative  clause. 


MODELS    OF   ANALYSIS.  99 

In  the  second  or  dependent  clause — 

The  logical  subject  is  which.    It  also  connects  its  clause  with  the 

aniecedeut  that,  and  restricts  it. 
The  logical  predicate  is  is  right,  iu  which  is  is  the  verb  or  copula,  and 

rigJit  is  the  attrioute. 
The  grammatical  subject  and  predicate  are  the  same  as  the  logical 

(61U  and  624). 

7.  Righteousness  exalteth  a  nation  ;  but  sin  is  a  reproach 

to  any  people. 

This  is  a  compound  sentence,  consisting  of  two  members,  connected . 
by  hut.     Declaratory. 

The  first  member,  "  Righteousness  exalteth  a  nation,"  is  a  single, 
simple  sentence,  of  which 

The  logical  subject  is  Righteousness. 

The  logical  predicate  is  exalteth  a  nation. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  exalteth.  It  is  modified  by  its  object 
nation,  and  this  is  known  to  be  used  indefinitely  by  the  article  a 
prefixed. 

The  second  member,  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people,  is  also  a  single, 
simple  sentence,  and  connected  with  tlie  preceding  member  by  the 
conjunction  hv^,  expressing  contrariety  or  opposition. 

Of  this  member,  the  logical  subject  is  sin. 

The  logical  predicate  is  is  a  reproach  to  any  people. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  the  same  as  the  logical. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  is  reproach,  of  which  is  is  the  copula, 
and  reproach  the  attribute,  shown  to  be  used  indefinitely  by  the 
article  a  prefixed.  It  is  modified  by  the  adjunct  to  any  people.  In 
this  adjunct,  the  word  pec^le  is  used  in  a  general  or  unlimited 
sense,  as  intimated  by  the  indefinite  adjective  pronoun  any  pre- 
fixed. 

EXERCISES. 

Thus  analyze  the  following  sentences  : — 

Man  is  mortal.  All  men  are  mortal.  The  man  and 
■woman  arrived  to-day.  He  sold  his  horse  and  waojon. 
The  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich.  The  love  of  money 
is  the  root  of  all  evil.  A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed. 
He  that  trusteth  in  his  riches  shall  fall.  If  I  do  not  go 
you  must.  The  fire  burns  fiercely  when  the  wind  blows  it 
It  was  I  who  wrote  the  letter,  and  he  carried  it  to  the  post 
office.  He  gave  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  to 
whom. 


100         INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL   GKAMMAB. 


^Lesson  50. — II.  Construction  of  Sentences. 

Words  are  arranged  in  sentences,  according 
to  certain  rules,  called  the  Rules  of  Syntax, 

661    GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

1.  In  every  sentence,  there  must  be  a  verb  and  its  subject,  expressed 
or  understood 

2.  Every  article,  adjective,  adjective  pronoun,  or  participle,  must 
have  a  suiistauiive,  expressed  or  understood. 

3.  Every  subject  has  its  o  a'u  verb,  expressed  or  understood, 

4.  Every  finite  verb  (that  is,  every  verb  not  in  the  infinitive  or 
participiiilmood)  has  its  own  subject  in  the  nominative  case,  ex- 
pressed or  underotood. 

5.  Every  possessive  case  limits  a  noun  or  substantive. 

6.  Every  objective  case  is  tlie  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  or  of  a  preposition ;  or  denotes  circumstances  of  time, 
value,  weight,  or  measure. 

7.  The  infinitive  mood  depends  upon  a  verb,  noun,  or  adjective. 
The  exceptions  to  these  general  principles  will  appear  in  the  Rules 

of  Syntax. 

PARTS  OF  SYNTAX. 

The  Rules  of  Syntax  may  all  be  referred  to 
three  heads;  viz.,  Concord,  or  agreement.  Gov- 
ernment, and  Position. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  one  word  has  with 
another  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  is  the  power  which  one  word 
has  in  determining  the  mood,  tense,  or  case  of 
another  word.  The  word  governed  by  another 
word  is  called  its  regimen.  (Obs.  3.  p.  77L.  32.) 

Position  means  the  place  which  a  word  oc- 
cupies in  relation  to  other  words  in  a  sentence 

In  the  English  lanc^naj^e,  which  has  but  few  inflections,  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence  often  depends  much  on  the  position  '^f  its  words. 


SUBSTANTIVES    IN   APPOSITION.  lOl 

Iiesson  «5I. — SubstanfAves  in  Apposition. 

EuLE  I. — Substantives  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing,  agree  in  case  ;  as,  Cicero,  the 
orator.     Carlo,  the  large  dog,  is  dead. 

Words  thus  used  are  said  to  be  in  apposition, 

EXPLAXATIOX. — A  noun  is  placed  in  apposition  after  another 
noun,  to  express  some  attribute^  description,  or  appellation,  belong- 
ing to  it.  Both  nouns  must  be  in  the  same  member  of  the  sentence, 
that  is,  in  the  subject,  or  the  predicate.  This  Rule  applies  to  all 
words  used  substantively,  and  it  is  only  when  the  word  in  apposition 
is  a  pronoun,  that  there  is  any  danger  of  error,  because  in  pronouns 
only,  the  nominative  and  objective  are  different  in  form.  The  word 
in  apposition  is  sometimes  connected  with  the  preceding  by  the  words 
as,  being,  and  the  like. 

EXERCISES.* 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  the  words  in  apposition. 
See  if  they  are  in  the  same  case.  If  they  are,  the  sentence  is  right ; 
if  not,  it  is  wrong,  and  must  be  corrected.  In  the  following,  some 
sentences  are  right,  others  wrong. 

First  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen  is  Washington,  the 
hero,  the  statesman,  and  the  patriot.  La  Fayette,  the  friend 
of  Washington,  is  no  more.  Your  brother  has  returned, 
him  who.  went  abroad.  I  bought  this  paper  from  a  book- 
seller, he  who  lives  opposite  ;  will  you  please  to  give  it  to 
that  boy,  he  that  stands  by  the  door  ?  Is  your  sister  well, 
her  that  was  lately  sick  ?  Hand  that  book  to  John,  he  who 
reads  so  well.  The  premium  for  the  best  writer  is  given 
to  Tliomas,  he  who  took  so  much  pains  to  excel.  Brutus 
slew  Caesar,  him  who  was  the  great  conqueror.  Solomon, 
king  of  Israel,  built  a  temple  for  Jehovah,  his  Lord.  The 
President,  Lincoln,  was  assassinated.  Us,  boys,  were  there. 
Him,  being  a  child,  was  forgiven. 

Write  correct  sentences,  each  to  contain  a  noun,  or  a  noun  and 
Us  pronoun,  in  apposition. 

o  ]!j,  B. — Throughout  the  Exercises  in  Syntax: — first,  correct  the 
errors;  second,  analyze  orally  the  sentences  corrected;  thirdly,  parse 
any  word  etymologically ;  aud,  lastly,  parse  syntactically  the  word  o' 
words  to  which  the  rule  refers.     See  Lesson  75, 


102         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

Ijessoil  9i2, — Adjective  and  Substantive, 

EuLE  II. — 1.  An  adjective  or  j^cirticiple  quail- 
Jies  the  substantive  to  which  it  belongs;  as,  "A 
good  man."     "  A  horse  wearied  by  labor.** 

2.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  qualify  nouns  in 
the  singidar — adjectives  denoting  more  than 
ONE,  qualify  nouns  in  the  ^9?wra^;  as,  "Tliis 
man."—"  These  menr—^'Six  feet." 

EXPLANATION. — This  Rule  applies  to  all  adjective  words,  namely, 
adjective.%  adjective  pronouns,  and  participlea.  These  being  iudecliu- 
able  in  English,  there  is  danger  of  error  only  in  the  use  of  such  as 
imply  number. 

Obs.  1.  Adjectives  denoting  one,  are  ihisj  that,  one,  each,  every^ 
either,  neither  ;  and  the  ordinal  numerals,  first,  second,  third,  &c. 

Obs  2.  Adjectives  denoting  more  than  one,  are  these,  those,  many^ 
teveral ;  and  the  cardinal  numerals,  two,  three,  fotir,  &c. 

Obs.  3.  Some  adjectives  implying  number,  can  be  joined  with  either 
singular  or  plural  nouns,  according  to  the  sense ;  as,  some,  nn,  &c ; 
thus,  Some  man — some  men. 

Obs.  4.  Exception.  .  "When  a  noun  foUovv^ing  the  numeral  i?  nsed 
m  an  adjective  sense  (Lesson  10,  Obs.  1),  it  has  not  the  plural  termi- 
nation ;  thus,  we  say,  A  four  inch  plank ;  a  three  foot  wail ;  a  f'^ur 
h/)rse  team ;  a  ten  acre  field,  &c. 

Obs.  5.  Adjectives  should  not  be  used  as  adverbs ;  thus,  miserable 
poor;  sings  elegant,  should  be,  miserably  poor;  sings  elegantly  (686). 

Obs.  6.  When  two  or  more  objects  are  contrasted,  *'  this "  and 
'*  th^se  "  refer  to  the  last  mentioned,  "  thai  "  and  "  those  "  to  the  first , 
as,  Virtue  and  vice  are  opposite  qualities ;  that  ennobles  the  mind,  this 
debases  it." 

Obs.  7.  Comparison.  When  two  objects  are  compared,  the  com 
parative  degree  is  commonly  used ;  when  more  than  two,  the  superla- 
tive; as,  "  He  is  taller  than  his  father."     "  John  is  tallest  anlong&i  us." 

Obs.  8.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  are  improper ;  thus, 
"James  is  more  toiler  than  John." — omit  more.     "He  ia  the  vnosl 


THE   ARTICLE.  103 

vnsest  of  the  three," — omit  most.    For  varieties  and  exceptioDS,  see 
An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  677-706. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  the  adjectives,  and  the  sub- 
stantives which  they  qualify.  Tell  which  denote  one,  and  which 
more  than  one,  and  make  the  substantives  singular  or  plural  as  the 
adjectives  require. 

A  well  six  fathom  deep.  A  pole  ten  feet  Ions;.  A  field 
twenty  rod  wide.  I  have  not  seen  him  this  ten  days.  Those 
sort  of  people  are  common.  These  kind  of  things  are  use- 
less. You  will  find  the  remark  in  the  second  or  third  pages. 
Each  have  their  own  place,  and  they  know  it.  The  second 
and  third  page  were  torn. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  an  adjective 
of  number,  (see  Obs,  1,  2,  3,)  and  a  substantive  in  the  number  re- 
quired by  the  adjective.     Thus,  Every  man  had  a  pole  six  feet  long. 


liCSSOa  53. —  TJie  Article. 

Rule  DI. — 1.  The  article  a  or  an  is  put  be- 
fore common  nouns  in  the  singular  number, 
when  used  indefinitely;  as,  "A  man" — "An 
apple ;"  that  is,  ''any  man" — "any  apple." 

2.  The  article  the  is  put  before  common 
nouns,  either  singular  or  plural,  when  used 
definitely  ;  as,  "  The  sun  rises" — "  The  city  of 
New  York." 

explanation. — It  is  impossible  to  give  a  precise  Rule  for  the 
use  of  the  article  in  every  case.  The  best  general  rule  is,  to  observe 
what  the  sense  requires.  The  following  usages  may  be  noticed.  (For 
others,  see  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  707-728). 

V  Obs.  1.  The  article  is  omitted  before  a  noun  that  is  unlimited,  or 
that  stands  for  a  whole  species;  as,  Man  is  mortal;  and  before  the 
names  of  minerals,  metals,  arts,  &c.  Some  nouns  denoting  tne  spe- 
cies, have  tlifi  article  always  prefixed ;  as,  The  dog  is  a  more  grat©' 
5* 


104         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

ful  animal  than  the  cat.  The  lion  is  a  noble  animal.  Others  nevet 
have  it;  thus.  Lead  is  softer  than  iron.  Wood  is  lighter  than  stone. 
Obs.  2.  The  last  of  two  nouns  after  a  comparative,  should  have  no 
article  when  they  both  refer  to  one  person  or  thing ;  as,  He  is  a  bet« 
ter  reader  than  writer. 

Obs.  3.  When  two  or  more  adjectives,  or  epithets,  are  used  to  qualify 
the  6a?ne  noun,  the  article  should  be  placed  before  the  first,  and  omit- 
ted before  the  rest;  but  when  they  belong  to  different  subjects,  the 
article  is  prefixed  to  each;  thus,  "A  red  and  white  rose,"  indicates 
one  rose,  partly  red  and  partly  white.  "A  red  and  a  white  rose,'* 
means  tioo  roses,  one  red  and  one  white.  ''  Johnson,  the  bookseller 
and  stationer,"  denotes  o7i€  person.  "Johnson  the  bookseller,  and 
the  stationer,"  denotes  two. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  The  following  sentences  are  wrong  only  in  the  use  of  the  arti- 
cle.    Show  why  they  are  wrong,  and  correct  them. 

A  great  talents  without  a  virtue  are  dangerous.  A  man 
is  mortal.  A  time  flies.  The  money  is  scarce.  John  is  a 
better  farmer  than  a  scholar.  Tlie  black  and  the  white 
spaniel  runs  fastest.  The  black  and  white  spaniel  run  to- 
gether. The  time  and  the  tide  wait  for  no  man.  A  red 
and  a  white  rose  grows  on  this  bush.  The  black  and  white 
man  came  together.  Smith,  the  tanner  and  currier,  entered 
into  partnership.  Smith,  the  tanner  and  the  cui'rier,  is  a 
man  of  a  great  industry. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  the  article 
a,  or  art,  or  the; — others,  which  shall  contain  nouns  wiihout  an 
article. 


licsson  54. — Personal  Pronouns, 

Rule  IV. — Personal  pronouns  agree  with  the 
words  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender,  number, 
and  person ;  as,  All  that  a  man  hath,  will  he 
give  for  his  life. 

EXPLAXATION".— This  Rule  applies  only  to  the  personal  and 


PLUSONAL    PRONOUNS.  105 

possessive  proiior.'js.  These  stand  instead  of  nouns  of  all  genders, 
uumbers,  and  persons  ^  and  this  Rule  means,  that  when  any  of  these 
pionouiis  is  used,  ii  must  be  of  the  same  gender,  number,  and  per- 
hou,  with  tlie  noun  for  which  ii  stands. 

PERSOXAL  PROXOUX— SPECIAL  RULES. 

Rule  1. —  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  words  taken  to- 
get/ter,  it  becomes  plural,  and  if  the  words  are  of  diff'erent  persons^  it 
prefers  the  first  person  to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third ;  as, 
'*  He  and  she  did  their  duty."  "  John  and  you  and  /  will  do  OUE 
duty." 

Rule  2. —  When  a  pronoun  refers  to  two  or  more  words  in  the  singu- 
lar, taken  separately  ;  or  to  one  of  them  exchisively,  it  must  be  singu- 
lar ,  as,  "  A  clock  or  a  watch  moves  merely  as  it  is  moved." 

Rule  3. — But  if  either  of  the  words  referred  to  is  plural,  the  pro- 
noun must  be  plural  also ;  as,  "Neither  he  nor  they  trouble  themselves."^* 

Ous.  1. — A  pronoun  referring  to  a  collective  noun  in  the  singular, 
expressing  many  as  one  whole,  should  be  in  the  neuter  singular ;  but 
when  the  nouns  expresses  many  as  individuals,  the  pronoun  should 
be  plural;  as,  "The  arttiy  proceeded  on  its  march." — "The  court 
were  divided  in  their  opinions." 

Obs.  2. — The  word  containing  the  answer  to  a  question,  must  be 
in  the  same  case  as  the  word  that  asks  it;  as,  "Who  said  that?" 
Ans.  "I  (said  it)."  "Whose  books  are  these?"  Ans.  "John's." 
For  other  Notes  and  Observations,  see  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  730-741. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercise,  point  out  the  personal  and  possessive 
pronouns,  and  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand.  Change  the  pronoun 
if  necessary,  for  one  of  the  same  gender,  number,  and  person  with 
Its  noun.    '  ' 

Give  to  every  man  their  due.  Answer  not  a  fool  accord- 
ing to  her  folly.  Take  handfuls  of  ashes  and  sprinkle  it  to- 
ward heaven.  Rebecca  took  raiment  and  put  them  upon 
Jacob.  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  them.  Who  is 
there?  Me.  Who  did  that?  Him.  Whom  did  you 
meet?  He.  Whose  pen  is  that?  Her  or  mine's.  Virtue 
forces  her  way  through  obscurity,  and  sooner  or  later  it  is 
sure  to  be  rewarded. 


106         INTRODUCTIOX    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

T^eMSOFft  55. — Relative  and  Antecedent. 

EuLE  V. — The  relative  agrees  with  its  antece- 
dent in  number  and  j^erson;  as,  "  Thou  who 
speakest." — ^''Tlie  book  which  was  lost." 

EXPLANATION. — The  relative  stands  instead  of  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun called  its  antecedent,  and  also  connects  the  idea  expressed  in 
its  clause  with  the  antecedent,  either  for  the  purpose  of  further  de- 
scribing it,  or  of  limiting  and  restricting  it.  [See  Lesson  13,  Obs.  1]. 
Consequently,  the  relative  is  always  regarded  as  of  the  same  person 
and  number  as  its  antecedent ;  and,  if  the  nominative  to  a  verb,  the 
verb  will  be  of  the  same  number  and  person  also.  For  remarks  re- 
specting the  antecedent,  and  the  use  of  who  and  which,  see  Lesson  1 3. 

Rule  1. — Who  is  applied  to  persons,  or  things  persojiijied ;  as, 
"The  man  loho''^ — "The  fox  toho  had  never  seen  a  lion." 

Rule  2. — Which  is  applied  to  things,  and  inferior  animals;  as, 
"The  house  which, •''^  "The  dog  lohichy     See  Lesson  13,  4. 

Rule  3. — That,  as  a  relative,  is  used  instead  of  who  or  tohich — 

1.  After^  the  superlative  degree,  the  words  sayne,  all,  and  some- 

times no,  some,  and  any ;  and  generally  in  restrictive  clauses ; 
as,  "It  is  the  best  that  can  be  got." 

2.  When  the  antecedent  includes  both  persons  and  things ;  as, 

"  The  man  and  the  horse  that  we  saw  yesterday." 

3.  After  the  interrogative  loho,  and  sometimes  after  the  personal 

pronouns;  as,   "Who  tltat  knows   him  will  believe  it."     "I 
that  speak  in  righteousness." 

4.  Generally,  when  the  propriety  of  who  or  which,  is  doubtful    as, 

"The  child  that  was  placed  in  the  midst." 
For  other  remarks,  see  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  '?43~769. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  relative,  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  to  which  it  re- 
fers. Tell  the  use  of  the  relative  and  its  clause  in  each  sentence. 
Alter  the  relative,  if  necessary,  as  required  by  its  antecedent,  accord- 
ing to  Sun-RuLK  1.  If  the  relative  is  in  the  nominative,  put  its  verb 
in  the  same  number  and  person  as  the  relative  or  the  antecedent. 
Give  a  reason  for  each  change. 

The  friend  which  I  love.  The  vice  whom  I  hate. 
There  is  the  dog  who  followed  us.  They  which  seek  wis- 
dom, find  it.  All  wliich  h<^'autv,  all  which  wealth  e'er  gave. 
'•I  who  speak  unto  you,  am  he."     It  is  the  best  situation 


NOMINATIVE    ABSOLUTE.  107 

which  can   be  got.     The  man  and  the   horse    whom   we 
saw. 

2.  Wi'iie  a  Jew  short  seateuces,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  of 
the  lOiiownig  nouns  or  pronouns  iiniiteJ  by  a  relative  and  its  clause; 
VIZ.  Mau,  /lOuse,  doy^  tree,  field,  hat,  boot,  chair ;  I,  thou,  he,  toe,  t/ou, 
they  :  thus,  *'  Tliere  is  the  man  who  makes  baskets."  Parse  the  seu- 
teuces,  and  tell  the  number  and  person  of  the  relative,  and  why. 


Tjessoii  56. — Subject  Nominative, 

Rule  YI. —  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put 
in  the  no^nlnatlve;  as,  "I am.'" — ''Thou  art." — 
"Jle  is."—'-  Thei/  arer—"  Time  flies." 

Explanations. — A  finite  verb  is  a  verb  limited  by  person  and  num- 
ber,.!, e.,  a  verb  in  the  indicative,  poteutiai,  subjunctive,  or  impera- 
tive mood. 

The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  maybe  a  noun,  a  pronoun,  an  infinitive 
mood,  a  participle  used  as  a  noun,  or  a  clause  of  a  sentence.  A  ny  of 
these,  when  the  subject  of  a  verb,  may  be  rej^arded  as  a  substantiv* 
in  the  nominative.     See  Anal.  Gram.,  761-767. 

EXERCISES. 

In  each  sentence,  point  out  the  verb  and  its  subject.-  If  tlie  sub- 
ject is  not  in  the  right  case,  change  it. 

Him  and  me  are  of  the  same  age.  Suppose  you  and  me 
go.  Them  are  excellent.  It  is  probable  that  her  and  me 
will  return.  Robert  is  taller  than  me,  but  I  am  as  strong 
as  him.     I  am  older  than  him  ;  but  he  is  taller  than  me. 


Lesson  57. — Nominative-  Absolute, 

Rule  VII. — A  substantive  whose  case  depends 
on  no  other  word,  is  put  in  the  nominative  ab- 
solute. 

SPECIAL  SULES. 
RuLK  1 . — A  substantive  mth  a  pariiciple,  lohose  ease  depends  on  no 
other  word,  is  put  in  the  nominative  absolute ;  asj  '*  He  being  gone, 
onlv  two  remain. 


108         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

Rule  2. — A  p^'raon  or  thing  addressed,  vdlhout  a  verb  or  governing 
word,  is  put  in  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  I  remain,  dear  sir,  yours  truly. 
"  l^lato,  tiiou  reasonest  well." 

Rule  3. — A  substantioe  unconnected  in  mere  exclamation,  is  put  in 
Hie  nominative ;  as,  "0  the  times  ! — 0  the  manners  /" 

Rule  4. — A  substantive  used  by  pleonasm,  before  an  affirmation,  is 
piU  in  tlie  nominative ;  as,  "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?" 

Under  these  Rules,  a  mistake  can  be  made  only  in  the  case  of  pro- 
nouns. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  word  in  the  case  absolute  or  independent :  if  wrong, 
put  it  iu  the  right  case,  and  state  why  it  should  be  in  the  nominative. 

Me  being  absent,  the  business  was  neglected.  Tliee  be- 
ing present,  he  would  not  tell  what  he  knew.  Oh !  happy 
i»j  surrounded  with  so  many  blessings.  Thee  too !  Brutus, 
my  son !  cried  Ctesar  overcome. 


liesson  58. —  Verb  and  its  Subject, 

•  Rule  VIII. — A  verb  agrees  tvith  its  subject  in 
number  and  person  ;  as,  "  I  read  ;"  "  Thou  read- 
esti'  "He  reads;'  &c. 

Explanation. — This  Rule  means,  that  a  verb  must  always  be  in  the 
same  number  and  person  with  its  subject  or  nominative.  This  Rule 
and  the  Special  Rules  under  it  apply,  also,  when  the  subject  is  an  in- 
finitive mood,  or  clause  of  a  sentence.     See  under  Rule  VI. 

EXERCISES." 

1.  In  the  following  Exercises,  tell  which  words  are  verbs — which 
the  nominatives — whether  the  verb  and  its  nominative  agree — and  if 
not,  make  them  agree  by  putting  the  verb  in  the  person  and  num- 
ber of  its  nominative. 

You  was  there.  They  was  absent.  Your  brothers  has 
been  abroad.  Has  your  sisters  come  home?  Was  you 
present  ?  The  letters  has  come.  Fair  words  costs  nothing. 
There  is  no  roses  without  thorns. 

2.  Take  the  verb  to  lorite,  and  make  it  agree  with  / — with  yon — • 
with  he — with  ihei^ — in  all  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.  Take 
any  other  verb,  and  do  the  same. 


PllEDICATE    SITBSTANTIVE.  109 

Lie§soii  59. —  Verb  audits  Subject. 

SPECIAL  RULES  UNDER  RULE  VIIL 

Rule  1. — A  singular  noun  u.std  m  a  plural  sense,  has  a  verb  in  the 
plural ;  as,  "Ten  sail  (meaning  ships)  are  insight." 

Rule  2. — 7'«'o  or  more  substantives  singular,  taken  together^  kav0 
a  verb  in  the  plural ;  as,  '■''James  and  John  are  here.'* 

Exc. — But  when  substantives  connected  by  and,  denote  one  peiv 
eon  or  thing,  the  verb  is  singular ;  as,  "  Why  is  dust  and  ashes  proud?" 

Rule  3. — Txdo  or  more  substantives  singular,  taken  separately,  or 
one  to  the  exclusion  of  tfie  rest,  have  a  verb  in  the  singular ;  as, 
*'  James  or  John  attends^   "  The  dog  or  the  cat  makes  the  noise." 

Rule  4. —  When  siibstantives  taken  together,  are  of  different  persons, 
the  verb  agrees  with  the  one  next  to  it ;  as,  "  James  or  I  am  in  the 
wrong  ?  "     Better,  "  James  is  in  the  wrong,  or  I  am." 

Obs.  So  also  when  the  substantives  are  of  different  numbers,  in 
which  case  the  plural  number  is  usually  placed  last. 

Rule  5. — 1.  A  collective  noun  expressing  many,  considered  as  one 
WHOLE,  has  a  verb  in  the  singular;  as,  "The  cmnpany  was  large. ' 

2.  But  when  a  collective  noun  expresses  many,  considered  as  indi- 
viduals, the  verb  must  be  plural;  as,  '■'■'iiLj  people  do  not  consider 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  Exercises,  put  the  verb  in  the  number  required 
by  the  Rule,  and  give  the  Rule  for  the  correction. 

(1)  Forty  head  of  cattle  was  grazing  in  the  meadow. 
Twelve  brace  of  pigeons  was  sold  for  one  dollar.  (2)  Life 
and  death  is  in  the  power  of  the  tongue.  Out  of  the  same 
nwuth  proceedeth  blessing  and  cursing.  (3)  Either  the 
boy  or  the  girl  were  present.  (4)  I  or  you  am  to  blame. 
(5)  The  people  was  numerous.     The  deer  were  caught. 


licsson  60. —  The  predicate  Substantive. 

Rule  IX. — The  predicate  suhstantive  after  an 
attributive  verb,  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the 
subject  before  it ;  as,  "  It  is  /." — "  He  shall  be 
called  Johir — "  I  took  it  to  be  himr 


I'lO  INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL  GRAMMAR. 

EXPLANATIOX. — Verbs  having  the  same  case  after  as  before 
them,  are  cliiefly  those  which.signify  to  be,  or  to  become,  passive  verbs 
of  naming,  snaking,  choosing,  and  the  like ;  as,  "  John  became  a  scho' 
lar;^^  ^'■IJavzd  v,-a.s  made  king.^''  The  nominative  before  the  finite 
verb  is  the  subject,  the  one  after  it  is  the  predicate,  and  the  verb  is 
the  copula.  Hence  they  all  form  a  simple  sentence;  and  though  the 
nouns  denote  the  same  person  or  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case, 
they  are  not  in  apposition  as  in  Rule  I ;  but  the  noun  after  a  verb  ii 
predicated  of  the  substantive  before  it. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  Eicercises,  in  each  sentence,  point  out  the  verb  to 
which  the  Rule  applies,  and  the  noun  or  pronoun  before  and  after  it. 
Tell  the  case  of  the  one  before,  and  why.  Put  the  one  after  the 
verb  in  the  same  case  as  the  one  before  it,  give  the  Rule  for  the 
change,  and  show  how  it  applies.  Tell  the  subject  and  predicate  in 
each  sentence.  ,.  j; 

It  is  m^^  It  could  not  have  been. thenar  I  am  Q^^in  it 
was  not  me.  That  is  the  man  who'I  thought  it  toiie.  Is 
that  thee  ?  Whom  did  they^ay  it  was  ?  I  understood  it 
to  have  been  hei  '  Was  it  me  that  said  so?  It  could  not 
have  been  me;  but  it  might  have  been  him,  or  her,  or  both. 

2.  Write  similar  correct  sentences,  in  each  of  which  shall  be  one 
of  the  following  verbs,  with  the  same  case  after  it  as  before  it,  viz., 
is,  are,  became,  was  made,  shall  be  chosen^  to  be,  to  be  catted,  to  be 
appointed..     Apply  the  Rule  as  above. 


Lesson  61. —  Objective  after  a  Transitive  Verb, 

Rule  X. — A  substantive  being  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  is  put  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  "  We  love  him." — "  Whom  did 
you  send  ?" 

EXPLANATION. — The  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  always 
tells  what  its  subject  or  nominative  does  to  some  other  por.<on  or 
thing,  called  its  object.  The  rule  means,  that  this  object  must  always 
be  put  in  the  objective  case.  This  rule  is  liable  to  be  violated  only 
when  the  object  is  a  pronoun,  because  in  all  other  words,  the  nomi- 
native and  the  objective  case  are  alike  in  form. 

Nouns  and  personal  pronouns  in  the  objective  case,  are  usually 
placed  after  the  verb— relative  and  interrogative  pronouns,  usually 
before  it. 


OBJECTIVE    AFTER    A    TRANSITIVE    VERB.  Ill 

The  infinitive  mood,  a  participle  used  as  a  noun,  or  a  part  of  a  sen- 
tence, may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  active  verb ;  as,  "  Boys  love 
to  p!ai/.^' — "  He  practised  reading  aloud." — "1  know  what  he  will  do.''^ 

EXERCISES. 

1.  \\\  the  following  Exercises,  point  out  the  transitive  verb — its 
subject — its  object, — put  that  object  in  the  proper  case — tell  what 
that  case  is,  and  why. 

He  loves  her  and  I.  Did  they  hurt  ye  ?  We  know  he 
and  they.  He  and  they  wc  know.  The  friend  who  I  love. 
Take  care  who  you  admit.  I  will  not  give  ye  up.  He 
who  you  ignorantly  worship,  declare  1  unto  you. 

2.  Write  a  number  of  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  an 
active  transitive  verb ;  such  as,  do^  have,  touch,  Jiurt,  love,  &c.,  fol- 
lowed by  a  personal  pronoun  In  the  proper  case.  Parse  them,  and 
give  the  Rule. 

SPECIAL  PvULES. 

Rule  1. — An  intransitive  verb  does  not  govern  an  objective  case  ; 
as,  "Repenting  him  of  his  design" — omit  hzm.   (803). 

Rule  2. — Intransitive  verbs  used  in  a  transitive  sense  (Less.  16,  Obs. 
3),  govern  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  He  runs  a  race.'^—^'^  I  laugh  at/w/w." 

Rule  3. — Intransitive  verbs  do  not  admit  a  passive  voice,  except 
when  itsed transitive! ti/  (Lesson  18,  5);  as,  "My  race  ts  run.'''    (807). 

Rule  4. — A  transitive  verb  does  not  admit  a  preposition  after  tt; 
as,  "  I  will  not  allow  of  it ; " — omit  of. 

Rule  5. —  Verbs  signifi/ing  to  name,  appoint,  constitute,  and  the 
like,  generally  govern  boo  objectives,  viz.:  <//e  direct,  denoting  the 
person  or  thing  acted  upon;  and  the  indirect,  denoting  the  residt  of 
the  act  expressed;  as,  "They  named  him  John.'''' 

EXERCISES  LENDER  THE  SPECIAL  RULES. 

Show  how  the  Rule  is  violated  in  each  of  the  following  sentences, 
and  correct  the  error. 

(1)  Robert  plays  himself  with  his  lessons.  He  lies  him 
down  on  the  grass.  (2)  They  expatiated  themselves  largely. 
Planters  grow  cotton.  Sit  thee  down.  (3)  I  am  resolved 
to  go.  Is  your  father  returned?  He  is  almost  perished 
with  cold.  (4)  They  .do  not  want  for  any  thing,  l^is  ser- 
vants ye  are,to  whom  ye  obey.  False  accusation  can  not  dim- 
inish from  his  real  merit,     (o)  He  was  chosen  for  a  -Senator. 


112  IXTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

liesson  6^. — Objective  after  a  Preposition. 

Rule  XI. — A  substantive  being  the  object  of  a 
preposition,  is  put  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "  To 
whom  much  is  given^  of  him  much  shall  be 
required." 

EXPLANATIOK — This  Rule  means,  that  the  noun  or  pronoun, 
which  is  the  object  of  a  preposition,  must  be  put  in  the  objective  case. 
This  rule  can  be  violated  only  in  the  use  of  pronouns. 

Ous.  1.  Whom  and  which  are  sometimes  governed  by  a  preposi- 
tion at  some  distance  after  them.  But  this  should  generally  be 
avoided ;  thus,  "  This  is  he  whom  I  gave  it  ^o," — better — "<o  whom  I 
gave  it." 

Obs.  2.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted.  It  is  then  said 
to  be  Understood ;  thus,  "  Give  (to)  me  that  book."  Here,  "  me  "  is 
governed  by  *'  <o,"  understood. 

SPECIAL   RULE. 

Rule. — Nouna  denoting  time,  value,  weight,  or  measure  are 
tommonly  put  in  the  objective  case  withoitt  a  governing  word;  as,  "  He 
was  absent  six  montlcs  last  year.'''' — "  It  cost  a  shillingy — "  It  is  not 
worth  a  cc»i<." — "It  weighs  a  pound.'''' — "The  wall  \&  six  feet  high» 
and  two  feet  thick." 

This  may  be  called  the  objective  of  time^  value,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Point  out  the  preposition  and  the  word  which  is  its  object.  Put 
that  word  in  the  proper  case,  if  not  in  it  already.     Give  the  Rule. 

This  belongs  to  my  father  and  I.  Who  did  you  get  it 
from?  Who  shall  we  send  it  to  ?  Divide  it  between  ye, 
or  give  it  to  him  and  I.  This  is  a  small  matter  between  you 
and  I.     Who  did  you  give  it  to?     Who  do  you  work  for? 

2.  In  this  way,  write  a  number  of  short  sentences,  each  of  which 
shall  contain  a  preposition  (see  tlie  list,  p.  77),  followed  by  a  per- 
sonal or  relative  pronoun  in  the  pioper  case.  ParSe  the  sentences, 
and  give  the  Rule  for  the  case  after  the  preposition. 

Ob&  3.  When  the  prepositions  to,  at,  in,  stand  before  names  of 
places,  the  following  usage  should  be  carefuffy  observed,  viz. : 

1.  7b — is  used  after  words  denoting  motion  toward;  as,  "He 
went  to  Spain  ;  but,  in  this  case,  it  is  oniittod  before  home,  as, 
"  Ho  wont,  hanie.''^ 


PREPOSITIONS    AFTER    CEKTAIX    "WORDS.  113 

2.  At — is  used  before  names  of  Iiauses,  villages^  toicns^  and  foreign 

cities;  as,  " He  resides  at  the  Mansion  house — at  Geneva — • 
at  Lisbon." 

3.  In — is  used  before   names  of  countries  and   large  cities;  as, 

*'  He  lives  in  England — in  London."  But  before  these,  at  is 
used  after  the  verbs  touchy  arrive^  land;  and  sometimes  after 
the  verb  to  be. 

4.  In  speaking  of  one's  residence  in  a  city,  at  is  used  before  the 

No.,  and  in  (generally  understood),  before  the  street. 
This  Observation  contains  four  special  rules,  numbered  as  above. 

EXERCISES. 

Obs.  3. — 1.  In  the  following  sentences,  change  the  preposition 
used,  for  that  which  usage  requires,  and  give  the  special  Rule. 

I  have  been  to  home  all  day.  Have  you  been  to  Boston  ? 
They  live  in  Union  Village ;  formerly  they  lived  at  New 
York.  He  has  been  at  England,  and  has  just  returned  to 
home.  We  touched  in  France  on  our  way  to  home.  He 
lives  to  Washington,  at  B.  Street,  but  resided  formerly  in 
Kg.  50  Broadway,  New  York. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  the  name  of 
some  city,  village,  couuty  or  state,  preceded,  by  a  verb  or  word  de- 
noting motion  toward,  or  by  the  verb  be,  live,  dwell,  kc,  and  the 
appropriate  preposition. 


licsson  63. — Prepositions  after  certain  words. 

KuLE  XII. — Certain  words  and  ^^Amses 
shoidd  be  followed  hy  appropriate  preposi* 
tions:  Thus — 

Accuse  of.  Call  on  a  person, — at  a  place. 

A  cqu  i  t  of.  C  h  ai  ige  for, —to,— into. 

Acquiesce  in.  Compare  with,  in  respect  to  qual- 
Adapced  fo.  ity, — to,  for  illusLration, 

Ask  or  inquire  of  a  person,  for  Contide  in. 

what    we    wish    to    see, — after  Conlbrmable,  consonant  to,  with. 

what  we  wish  to  hear  of.  Conversant  with  men, — in  things. 

Believe  in,  sonietiraes  on.  Copy  from  life,  nature, — aft&r  a 
Betray  to  a  person, — into  a  thing.  parent. 


114 


INTBODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL   GEAMMAR. 


Dependent  upon. 

Die  of  disease, — by  an  instrument 
or  violence, — for  another. 

Differ /7-om.         Difficulty  iTv. 

Diminish  from^ — diminution  of. 

Disappointed  in  what  we  have, — 
of  what  we  expect. 

Discourage /rom. 

Discouragement  to. 

Engaged  in  a  work, — for  a  time. 

]<]quul  to,  with. 

Exception  from, — sometimes  to. 

Expert  at  (before  a  noun), — in 
(before  an  active  participle). 

Fail  under  disgrace ;  from  a  tree ; 
into  a  pit ;  on  the  ice. 

Familiar,  to,  with.  A  thing  is  fa- 
miliar to  us ;   we  wltlc  it. 

Fond  of.  Free  from. 

Glad  of  something  gained  by  our- 
selvt'S, — at  something  that  be- 
falls another. 

Independent  of. 

Indulge  with  what  is  not  habitual, 
— in  what  is  habitual 


Made  of.  Marry  to. 

Martyr /or.         Need  of. 
Observation  of.      Offensive  to. 
Prejudice  against. 
Prevail   (to   persuade)    with,    on^ 

upon,  —  (to     overcome),     cver^ 

against. 
Prejudice  against.     Profit  by. 
Protect  (others)  from, — (ourselves) 

against. 
Provide  with  or  for. 
Keconcile    (for   friendship)    to, — 

(for  consistency)  with.  • 
Eeduce    (to    subdue)    under, — ^it 

other  cases)  to ;  as,  to  powder 
Regard /o?-, — in  regard  to. 
Share  in  or  of.         Sick  of. 
Swerve  from. 
Taste  (meaning  capacity  or  inch 

nation)  for, —  (meaning   actual 

enjoyment),  of. 
Tax  with,  (e.  g.  a  crime), — for  the 

state. 
Value  upon,  or  on. 
Worthy  of, — sometimes  the  of  ia 

understood. 


Insist  upon. 

EXPLANATION. — As  words  connected  by  prepositions,  are  differ 
ently  related,  care  must  be  taken  to  employ  the  preposition  which 
best  expresses  the  relation  intended.  Tho  sense  and  the  practice  of 
correct  writers,  will  here  be  our  best  guide.  The  above  are  only  a 
few  examples  out  of  many. 

Obs. — The  same  preposition  that  follows  the  verb  or  adjective,  usu- 
ally follows  tlie  noun  derived  from  it ;  as,  ConMe  in, — confidence  in, 
— confident  in. 


EXERCISES. 

1.  Change  the  proposition  where  necessary  in  each  of  the  following 
sentences,  for  that. required  by  the  Rule. 

He  was  accused  with,  robbery,  and  acquitted  from  tlie 
charge.  I  have  been  calling  upon  an  old  friend.  Call  in 
the  post-office.  I  differ  witli  you  in  that  matter.  John 
died  by  consumption,  Henry  died  of  the  sword,  and  Robert 
is  sick  with  the  jaundice.  Try  to  profit  from  experience. 
You  have  a  taste  of  poetry.     Conversant  in  men  and  things. 


THE  POssKssivE  casp:.  115 

Compare  tliis  piece  to  that,  and  see  which  is  the  best.  I 
could  never  bear  the  ta.ste  for  tobacco.  This  is  an  exception 
against  the  general  rule. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  or  more 
of  the  words  in  the  preceding  table,  followed  by  the  appropriate 
preposition. 


liesson  64. —  The  Possessive  Case. 

Rule  XIII. — A  siihstantive  that  limits  the  sig- 
nification of  another,  7niist  he  put  in  the  possessive 
case ;  as,  '^  Virtues  reward." — "  Johns  books." — 
"  The  suns  rays." 

EXPLAN'ATION". — The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive,  always 
limits  the  noun  that  governs  it :  Thus,  "  Virtue's  reward  ;  "  the  lat- 
ter word  does  not  mean  reward  in  general,  or  any  hidefinite  reward, 
but  a  particular  reward,  viz. :  Virtue's.  This  Rule  applies  to  the  re- 
lative pronoun,  and  to  the  possessive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun, 
when  the  noun  denoting  the  thing  possessed  is  understood ;  as, 
"That  book  \s,minc.'"  When  expressed,  the  possessor  is  denoted  by 
the  possessive  adjective  pronoun  ;  as,   "That  is  my  book." 

Obs.  1. — When  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  possessive 
case,  implying  common  possession,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  ('s)  is 
annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the  rest ;  as,  "  Jane  and 
Lucy's  ^books,"  i.  e.,  books  the  common  property  of  Jane  and  Lucy. 
But  if  common  possession  is  not  hnplied,  or  if  several  words  inter- 
vene, the  sign  of  the  possessive  dhouid  be  annexed  to  each  ;  as, 
"  Jane's  and  Lucy's  books,"  i.  e.,  books,  some  of  which  are  Jane's 
and  others,  Lucy's. 

Obs.  2.  When  a  name  is  complex,  consisting  of  more  terms  than 
one,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed  to  the  last  only  ;  as, 
"  Julius  Cjesar's  Commentaries " — "  The  Bishop  of  London's 
Charge." 

Ors.  3.  The  noun  limited  by  the  possessive  is  frequently  under* 
•tood;  as,  "He  stays  at  his  father's"  (house). 

Obs.  4.  The  preposition  q/",  with  the  objective,  is  frequently  equii 
valent  to  the  possessive,  but  not  always ;  as,  A  picture  of  my  father 
means  a  portrair  of  him.  M\  father  s  picture  may  mean  a  picture  be» 
longing  to  him. 


116         INTRODUCTION    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR.. 

^^  For  several  particulars  belonging  to  this  Rale,  fiee  An.  4 
Pr.  Gr.  640-850. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  Exercises,  point  out  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  limits,  aiid  the  noun  whose  signification  is  limited  by  it;  and 
if  uudei'stood,  supply  it.  Put  the  limiting  word  in  the  possessive 
case.  When  several  words  coming  together  should  be  in  the  posses* 
eive,  or  when  the  name  is  complex,  add  the  sign  of  the  possessive  ('s) 
to  the  proper  term. 

The  boys  book.  The  girls  bonnet.  The  Ladys  book,  a 
birds  nest,  a  bear  skin.  A  mothers  tenderness,  and  a  fa- 
thers care,  are  natures  gifts  for  mans  advantage.  A  horse 
tooth.  James*  and  Thomas  feet*  are  cold.  Williams  and 
Marys  reign.  Sheldon  &  Company's  bookstore  is  in 
New  York.  James^  loss  is  Thomas^  gain.  The  Farmers 
Guide.  The  Scholars  Companion.  The  Court's  session  is 
put  off.     The  meeting's  president  was  appointed. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  two  nouns, 
one  limiting  the  other.     Put  the  limiting  word  in  the  proper  case. 


licsson  65. — Subjunctive  Mood, 

Rule  XIV. — 1.  The  suhjunctive  mood  is  used 
in  dependent  clauses,  when  both  contingency  or 
doubt,  and  futurity  are  expressed ;  as,  "K  he 
continue  to  study,  he  will  improve." 

2.  When  contingency  or  doubt  only,  and  not 
futurity,  is  implied,  the  indicative  is  used ;  as, 
^*If  he  has  money,  he  keeps  it." 

EXPLANATION.— Doubt  and  futurity  are  both  implied  when  the 
auxiliary  shall  or  shoiUd,  referring  to  future  time,  can  be  inserted  be- 
fore the  verb  without  changing  the  meaning  thus,  "Though  he  fall," 
and  "  Though  he  should  fall,"  mean  the  same  thing.  It  is  only  in  the 
present  tense  and  third  person  singular,  that  there  is  danger  of  error 
under  this  Rule,  except  in  the  verb  to  be. 

REMARK. — Many  of  the  best  writers,  and  some  distinguished 
grammarians,  often  use  the  subjunctive  present,  when  mere  doubt 


INFINITIVE    MOOD.  117 

or  contingency  is  expressed,  and  not  futurity.  A  contrarr  practice 
of  usint;  the  indicative  wliere  both  doubt  and  futurity  are  implied, 
now  begins  to  prevail;  tlius,  "If  he  continues  to  study,  he  will  im- 
prove.'* But  the  weight  of  good  authority  still,  is  evidently  in  favor 
of  the  preceding  Rules.  A  general  adherence  to  them  would  have 
this  advantage,  that  the  mood  used  would  be  a  certain  guide  to  the 
sense  intended. 

SuB-RcLE. — Lest  a7id  that,  annexed  to  a  command^  reqitire  the  sub- 
jimctive  mood ;  as,  "  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  cojne  to  poverty.** 
"Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob,  either  good  or  bad." 

Obs. — The  subjunctive  mood,  in  the  past  tense,  expresses  a  sup- 
position with  respect  to  something  present,  but  implies  a  denial  of 
the  thing  supposed;  as,  "If  I  were  a  nightingale,  I  would  sing;** 
implying,  "I  am  not." 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  state  whether  the  verb  following  "if 
or  "though"  should  be  in  the  subjunctive  or  indicative  mood,  and 
why ;  and  make  the  necessary  correction. 

If  there  be  a  rule,  it  should  be  observed.  Though  he 
be  rich,  he  is  not  happy.  If  the  mail  arrives  to-morrow, 
we  shall  have  letters.  If  he  studies  diligently  when  he 
goes  to  school,  he  will  improve.  If  he  is  discreet  when  he 
goes  abroad,  he  will  gain  friends.  If  he  have  money,  he 
'must  have  earned  it. 


Iies§on  66. — Infinitive  Mood. 

Rule  XV. — The  infinitwe  mood  is  governed 
hy  VERBS,  NOUNS,  or  adjecti\t:s;  as,  "I  desire  to 
learn." — ^'^A  desire  to  learn." — ''Anxious  to 
learn." 

SPECIAL  RULES. 

Rule  1. — One  verb  being  the  subject  cf  another^  h  put  in  the  infin- 
itive ..   as,  ''To study  is  profitable." 

Rule  2. — One  verb  governs  another  as  its  object  or  complemeni  in 
the  infinitive  ;  as,  "Boys  love  to  play^ 


118         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

Rule  3. — The  infinitive,  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  somethne» 
has  a  subject  of  its  oxon  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  For  us  to  do  so, 
would  be  improper." — "  I  know  him  to  be  prudent." 

Rule  4. — TJu  infinitive  is  used  as  a  predicate  nominative  after  any 
verb  as  a  copula;  as,  "You  are  to  blamed 

Rule  6. — To,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  is  not  used  after  the  verbs 

BID,  DARE,  NEED,  MAKE,  SEE,  HEAR,  FEEL,  and  LET,  in  the  OCtive    Voicc, 

nor  after  LET  in  the  passive;  as,  "I  saw  him  do  it;"  not  "<o  do  it." 

Role  6. — Tlie  infinitive  is  used  to  express  the  purpose,  end,  or  de- 
sign of  tJie  preceding  act ;  as,  "  Some  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to 
pray:' 

Rule  7. — In  comparisons,  tJie  infinitive  mood  is  put  after  so — as, 
TOO,  or  than;  as,  *'Be  so  good  as  to  read  this." — '■''l^oo  old  to  learn." 
— "  Wiser  Uian  to  undertake  it." 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  tell  which  verb  is  in  the  infinitive 
mood,  and  what  governs  it.  State  whether  it  is  the  subject  or  object 
of  the  verb.  Insert  or  omit  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive,  and  give  a 
reason  according  to  the  Rule. 

Strive  learn.  Cease  do  evil.  L(!arn  do  well.  He 
needs  not  to  write.  I  would  make  you  to  take  care.  He 
dares  not  to  do  a  wicked  action  ;  nor  will  he  dare  do  it.  I* 
heard  him  to  say  so.  He  was  heard  say  so.  Let  James 
to  do  this.  Bid  him  to  speak  to  me.  Did  you  see  him  to 
do  tliat  ?  No,  but  I  heard  him  to  do  it  Did  you  hear  the 
bell  to  ring  ?     Make  him  to  go.     He  was  made  go. 

2.  Write  short  sentences,  in  each  of  which  shall  be  one  verb  in 
the  infinitive  mood,  as  the  subject  of  another  verb— as  the  object — 
to  express  the  end  or  design — with  to  properly  omitted — with  a  sub- 
ject of  its  own  in  the  objective  case. 


liesson  67. —  Construction  of  Participles. 

Rule  XYI. — Participles   have   the  construe 
tion  of  NOUNS,  ADJECTIVES,  and  verbs. 

Rem. — To  participles  used  in  these  ways,  the  Rules  of  Syntax  for 
nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs,  may  generally  be  applied.  (See  An.  & 
Pr.  Gr.  891-007). 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    PARTICIPLES.  119 

SPECIAL  RULES. 
RuLB  1 — Wlien  tlie  present  or  perfect  participle  is  used  as  a  nourit 
a  noun  before  it  is  put  in  ike  possessive  case;  as,  "Much  depends  on 
the  jptpiVs  composing  frequently." 

ESPLANATTOX. — The  present  participle  is  used  as  a  verbal  noun, 
whenever  it  is  lne  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  object  of  a  transitive 
verb  or  prepoaitioa.  Under  this  rule,  ttie  verbal  noun  may  be  mod- 
ified in  all  respects  as  the  verb. 

Obs.  L — A  pronoun  before  the  verbal  noun  must  be  the  possessive 
pronoun,  and  not  the  possessive  case ;  as,  "  Much  depends  on  i/our 
composing  frequently,"  (not  yours). 

Rule  2, —  W7ien  tite  present  participle  used  as  a  noun^  has  an  arti- 
cle or  ADJECTIVE  before  it^  tJte  preposition  of  follows ;  as,  "  By  tlie 
observing  of  these  rules," — "A  complete  forsaking  of  the  truth." 

EXPLAXATIOX. — When  used  in  this  way,  the  participle  is  re- 
garded as  a  noun  simply,  and  has  not  the  government  or  modifica- 
tions of  the  verb. 

Oos.  2. — The  sense  will  often  be  the  same,  if  both  the  article  and 
the  preposition  be  omitted;  but  the  one  should  not  be  omitted  with- 
out the  omis:^ion  of  the  other ;  thus,  "  By  observing  these  rules."  Jr. 
some  cases,  however,  these  two  modes  express  very  different  ideas, 
and  therefore  attention  to  the  sense  is  necessary,  as  directed  in  the 
following  rule. 

Rule  3. —  When  the  verhotl  noun  expresses  something  of  which  tlie 
noun  following  denotes  th£  doer,  it  should  have  the  article  and  the 
preposition,  as,  "It  was  told  in  tlie  hearing  of  the  witness."— 
But  when  it  expresses  something  of  lohich  the  noun  folloiving  does  not 
denote  tlie  doer,  but  the  object,  both  shoidd  be  omitted;  as,  "  The  court 
spent  much  time  in  hearing  the  witness." 

Obs.  3. — Of  can  never  be  used  after  the  verbal  noun  when  a  pre- 
position follows  it ;  thus,  "By  attending  to  these  rules,"  can  not  be 
changed  into,  "  By  the  attending  of  to  these  rules." 

Rule  4, — TJie  past  participle^  and  not  tfie  past  tense,  should  be  used 
after  the  auxiliaries  have  a^id  be  ;  as,  "  I  have  written "  (not  wroti) 
— "The  letter  is  vrritten^^  (not  lorote). 

Rem, — So  also,  the  past  participle  should  not  be  used  for  the  past 
tense  ;.  as,  "He  ra»;"  not  "He  rwM."     "I  saw;"  not  "I  seew." 

6 


120         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

EXPLAXATION".— This  Rule  can  be  violated  only  when  the  past 
tense  and  past  participle  differ  in  spelling. 

Obs.  4. — The  participle  in  ing  is  sometimes  used  in  a  passive  sense 
after  the  verb  to  be,  to  express  the  continued  suffering  of  an  action ; 
as,  "  The  house  is  building ;"  not  is  being  built. 

EXERCISEa 

'  (Rule  1). — ^In  the  following  Exercise,  tell  which  is  the  verbal 
noun,  and  how  you  know  it  to  be  used  as  such.  If  a  noun  stands 
before  it,  put  that  noun  in  the  proper  case,  and  give  the  Rule. 

My  brother  being  sick,  is  the  cause  of  his  absence.  A 
man  making  a  fortune,  depends  partly  on  him  pursuing  a 
proper  course.  John  attempting  too  much,  was  the  cause 
of  his  failure.     Hers  going  away  was  not  observed. 

(Rule  2). — In  the  following  Exorcise,  point  out  the  participial 
noun,  and  tell  how  you  know  it  to  be  so  used.  See  what  words  are 
before  and  after  it,  and  if  not  right,  according  to  the  rule,  make 
them  so,  and  give  the  rule  for  the  change. 

Learning  of  any  thing  well,  requires  application.  The 
doing  our  duty  is  commendable.  By  reading  of  good  books 
the  mind  is  improved.  Of  the  making  many  books  there  is 
no  end.  By  exercising  of  our  faculties  they  are  improved. 
The  giving  to  every  man  his  own  is  a  sacred  duty. 

(Rule  3). — Consider  whether  the  noun  following  the  present  part- 
K-iple  denotes  the  doer,  or  the  object  of  the  act  expressed  by  it,  and 
correct  the  sentence  accordingly. 

At  hearing  the  ear,  they  shall  obey.  Because  of  pro- 
voking his  sons  and  daughters,  the  Lord  abhorred  them. 
The  greatest  pain  is  felt  in  the  cutting  of  the  skin. 

(Rule  4).  1. — In  the  following  Exercise,  when  the  past  tense  stands 
after  the  auxiliary  have,  or  be,  change  it  into  the  past  participle,  and 
give  the  rule  for  the  change. 

He  should  have  wrote.  Have  you  spoke  to  the  master  ? 
I  am  almost  froze.  She  has  just  began  to  read.  James 
has  broke  his  arm.  You  should  have  drove  more  slowly. 
He  has  drank  too  much,  and  should  be  took  home.  He 
might  have  rode  if  he  had  chose. 

2.  Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  change. 

I  seen  him  an  hour  ago.     I  done  what  you  told  me. 


THE    ORDER    OF    TIME.  .  121 

James  run  a  mile  in  tea  minutes,  and  had  not  began  to  be 
tired.  The  scliool  begun  yesterday.  He  ought  to  have 
went,  QT  at  least  to  have  wrote.  That  is  wrong,  you  had 
not  ought  to  done  it. 

3.  "Write  short  sentences,  in  each  of  which  shall  be  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing verbs,  in  the  present-perfect  or  past-perfect  indicative  active, 
viz.,  begin,  run.,  lorite^  freeze^  eatj  drink.  Parse  the  sentences,  and 
apply  the  Rule. 

4.  "Write  short  sentences,  with  the  following  verbs  in  the  passive 
voice ;  viz.,  write,  begin,  shake,  sink,  speak,  give.  Parse  them,  and 
apply  the  Rule. 


liCSSon  68. —  The  Order  of  Time, 

Rule  XVII. — In  the  use  of  verbs,  and  ivords 
that  in  point  of  time  relate  to  each  other,  the 
order  of  time  must  he  observed;  as,  "I  have 
known  him  these  many  years" — not  ''1  know 
him  these  many  years." 

EXPLANATION. — This  Rule  is  general,  and  here  also  the  sensp 
13  the  best  guide.     The  following  principles  may  be  noticed  here  : 

1.  That  which  is  always  true,  is  expressed  in  the  present  tense;  aa 
"Vice  produces  misery. 

2.  That  which  is  past,  but  viewed  as  continued  in  the  present,  ia 
expressed  in  the  present-perfect  tense  (911). 

3.  Verbs  having  the  auxiliaries  shall,  will,  may,  can,  can  be  asso' 
ciated  in  a  sentence  with  other  verbs  in  the  present  ouly;  those  with 
might,  could,  would,  should,  with  verbs  in  tlie  past  (916). 

4.  The  present  infinitive  expresses  what  is  cotemporary  with,  or 
subsequent  to,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb ;  the  perfect  infinitive 
expresses  what  is  antecedent  to  that  time  (920,  921). 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  verb  which  is  wrong 
in  respect  of  tense.  Put  it  in  the  proper  tense,  and  tell  why  it  ia 
changed. 

It  was  said  that  fever  always  produced  thirst ;  that  heat 
always  expanded  metals;  and  tliat  truth  was  immutable. 
He  is  now  absent  a  week.     I  have  been  abroad  last  year 


222         INTRODUCTION   TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMJIAR. 

If  he  would  lend  me  that  book,  I  will  be  obliged  to  him. 
He  can  do  it  if  he  would.  I  intended  to  have  written ;.  but 
I  still  hoped  he  would  have  come.  Rome  is  said  to  be 
built  seven  hundred  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Nero 
is  said  to  persecute  the  Christians.  He  has  been  gone  long 
before  I  knew  it. 

2.  Write  sliort  sentences,  and  express,  in  each,  something  which 
yon  hoped,  feared,  desired,  intended,  to  do  yesterday,  before  yester- 
day;— whicli  you  hope,  fear,  &c.,  to  do  to-day,  to-morrow.  Also 
what  some  one  did  yesterday, — before  yesterday, — always  does, — 
does  now, — has  just  uow  dque, — will  do  to-morrow, — before  to-mor- 
row nij;ht. 


Liesson  69. —  Construction  of  Adverbs, 

Rule  XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjec- 
tives, and  other  adverbs;  as,  "John  sj)eciks  dis- 
tinctly; he  is  remarkahJy  diligent,  and  reads 
very  correctlyr  (923-924). 

special  rules. 

Rule  1. — Adverbs  shmdd  not  he  used  as  adJcctive-%  nor  adjectives  as 
cidverhs;  as,  '■^  The  preceding  (not  the  above)  extract.'*   (Obs.  5.  L.  52). 

Rule  2. — Two  nec/atives  are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative^,  and  ahould 
not  be  used  unless  affirmatioyi  is  intended;  as,  "  I  can  not  driuk  any 
(not  no)  ?nore ;"  or,  "  I  can  drink  no  mor^." 

Rule  3. — Adverbs  are  for  the  most  pxirt  placed  before  adjectives^ 
after  a  verb  in  the  simple  form,  and  after  the  first  auxiliary  in  the 
compound  form  ;  as,  "  He  is  very  attentive,  behaves  well,  and  is  mu^h 
esteemed."  (940). 

EXPLAXATION. — This  is  to  be  considered  only  as  a  general  Rule, 
to  which  there  are  many  excepjtions.  Indeed  no  rule  for  the  position 
of  the  adverb  can  be  given,  which  is  not  liable  to  exceptions.  The 
best  direction  for  the  use  of  this  Rule,  is  to  place  the  adverb  where 
the  sense  requires,  having  due  regard  to  the  harmony  of  the  sen- 
tence. This  Rule  applies  to  adjuncts,  or  adverbial  phrases,  as  well 
as  to  adverbs. 

Obs.  1. —  Wliere  should  not  be  used  for  in  which,  except  when  the 


THE    ORDER    OF   TIME.  123 

reference  is  to  place ;  as,  *'  The  situation  in  which  C"Ot  where)  I  left 
him ;"  because  "  situation"  does  not  here  refer  to  place. 

Obs.  2. — So  is  often  used  elliptically  for  an  adjective,  a  noun,  or  a 
*rhole  sentence ;  as,  "  They  are  rich;  we  are  not  «o." — "  He  is  a  good 
scholar^  and  I  told  you  so." 

Obs.  3. — Only,  solely,  chiejly,  merely,  too,  also,  and  perhaps  a  few 
Others,  are  sonietimes  joined  to  substantives  ;  as,  "Xot  only  the  men, 
but  the  women  also  were  present." 

Obs.  4. — A  negative  is  often  made  by  the  syllables  J^«,  «n,  im,  uriy 
&c.,  prefixed  to  a  word.  When  this  is  the  case,  another  negative  is 
sometimes  used,  to  express  a  diminished  kind  of  affirmation ;  as,  "  He 
was  not  unkind."  The  negative  terms  are  such  as  7io,  not^  neither^ 
nor^  never.,  &c. 

For  a  fuller  account  of  the  construction  and  use  of  adverbs,  seo 
An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  923-941. 

EXERCISES. 

Adverbs  being  undeclinable,  mistakes  arc  liable  to  be  made  chiefly 
in  their  position ;  or  in  using  as  adverbs,  words  that  are  not  so ;  or 
in  using  adverbs  where  other  words  are  required.  Correct  the  errors 
in  the  following  sentences,  as  the  Rules  require : — 

(Rule  1). — 1.  Point  out  the  modifying  words  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.    If  not  adverbs,  make  them  so,  and  give  the  Rale. 

Come  quick.  James  does  that  very  good.  Tliat  was 
done  excellent.  Time  moves  rapid.  Apparent  slow  people 
accomplish  much  if  sufficient  steady.  You  can  read  excel- 
lent well.     It  is  real  cold." 

2.  In  the  following  point  out  the  adverb  improperly  used.  Show 
•why  it  is  so ;  change  it  for  the  proper  term,  and  give  the  Rule. 

Thine  often  infirmities.  Come  the  soonest  day  possible. 
The  soonest  time  will  be  late  enough.  The  then  ministry 
opposed  the  measure.  The  condition  where  I  found  hira 
was  truly  bad.  He  was  here  last  year,  since  when  I  have 
not  seen  him. 

8.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  an  adverb 
(see  Lesson  31),  modifying  a  verb  or  adjective,  and  see  that  it  is 
placed  as  directed  in  Rule  3d  and  Explanation. 


124         INTRODUCTION    TO   ANALYTICAL   GRAMMAR. 

(Rule  2). — ^1.  Point  out  the  two  negatives  iu  the  foUowiuf  aen* 
tences.  iShow  why  they  are  wrong ;  correct  them,  and  give  the 
Ilule. 

I  can  not  eat  no  more.  He  i.s  not  able  to  walk  no  fur- 
ther, "We  can  not  do  that  in  no  way.  lie  will  never  be  no 
taller.  Never  do  nothing  of  the  kind.  Time  and  tide  will 
not  wait  for  no  man.  Ko  man  never  did  that.  You  mus*- 
not  drink  no  more. 

2.  Make  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  of  the 
following  words:  worthy^  juat,  discreet,  kind,  obliging,  ogreeubte^ 
happy^  firm,  &c.  Then  pretix  to  tliese  words  the  appropriate  nega- 
tive pretix  mentioned  above.  Then  insert  a  negative  word  in  each 
sentence,  and  mark  the  difference  of  meaning  with  each  change; 
thus,  "He  is  a  worthy  man,"  "He  is  an  unworthy  man,*'  "  He  is  not 
au  unworthy  man." 

(Rule  3). — 1.  In  the  following  sentences,  place  the  adverb  as  the 
Rule  directs,  provided  the  sense  will  thereby  be  clearly  expressed. 

A  man  industrious  eminently.  He  is  agreeable  always. 
He  sweetly  sings,  charmingly  convei-ses,  and  prudently  con- 
ducts himself'  on  all  occasions.  He  unaffectedly  j^poke. 
He  manfully  has  contended  for  the  prize,  and  certainly  will 
obtain  it.  Thne  will  wait  never.  He  could  have  not  done 
it.  He  will  be  always  trusty.  That  disaster  might  have 
easily  been  prevented.  That  piece  was  executed  beauti- 
fully. 

2.  The  following  sentences  have  the  adverb  placed  according  to  the 
Rule,  but  the  sense  and  liarmony  of  the  sentence  evidently  require 
it  to  be  iu  a  different  position. 

Men  contend  frequently  for  trifles.  1  only  saw  three 
persons.  Of  the  books  I  sent  him,  he  only  read  one. 
James  can  very  well  read.  You  should  slowly  write.  He 
might  plainly  have  told  him.  He  not  only  saw  her  pleased, 
but  greatly  pleased. 

3.  "Write  a  number  of  short  sentences,  each  of  wl  ch  shall  contair. 
one  or  more  adverbs  correctly  placed.     [See  List,  Lesson  31]. 

4.  Write  short  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  of  the 
following  adverbs,  viz.,  o-ily,  itiercly,  xolely,  chief  y,  firxt,  at  Icatit,  and 
lell  the  word  which  thoy  modify.  '  Place  the  adverbs  in  as  many 
different  positions,  :n  eacn  sentence  as  you  can,  so  as  to  make  sense, 
and  mark  the  change  of  meaning. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  185 

liesson  70. —  Conjunctions. 

Rule  XIX.  —  Conjunctions  connect  words. 
PHRASES,  or  SENTENCES ;  as,  "  He  and  I  must  go ; 
hut  you  may  stay." 

SPECIAL   RULES. 
Rule  1. — Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and  tenses  of  verba, 
and  casts  of  nouns  and  prono^xns ;  as,  "  Do  good,  and  seek  peace." — 
**  Honor  ihj  father  and  mother." — "  He  and  /saw  it." 

EXPLANATION.— The  reason  of  this  Rule  is,  that  words  thus  con- 
nected are  generally  in  the  same  constmction  :  that  is,  nouns  and 
pronouns  connected  must  be  iu  the  same  case,  because  they  are  nomi- 
natives to  the  same  verb,  or  governed  by  the  same  noun,  verb,  or  pre- 
position ;  and  verbs  thus  connected  have  usually  the  same  nomina- 
tive.    In  respect  of  case,  errors  occur  chiefly  in  the  use  of  pronouns. 

Obs.  1.  When  conjunctions  connect  different  moods  and  tenses,  or 
when  a  contrast  is  stated  with  but,  not,  though,  &c.,  the  nominative  is 
generally  repeated ;  as,  "  He  may  return,  but  he  will  not  remain." 

Obs.  2.  The  relative  after  than,  is  usually  in  the  objective  case;  as, 
"  Alfred,  than  whom,"  &c. 

Obs.  3.  After  verbs  of  doubting,  fearing,  denying,  the  injunction 
thai  should  be  used,  and  not  lest,  but,  but  thai ;  as,  "  They  feared  tJiat 
(not  lest)  he  would  die."    (962). 

Obs.  4.  Conjunctions  are  sometimes  understood  between^words  or 
sentences  connected ;  as,  *'  John,  Charles,  James,  and  Edward  were  m 
the  boat."    (954). 

Obs.  5.  In  the  compound  tenses,  verbs  connected  in  the  same 
tense,  have  the  auxiliary  expressed  with  the  first,  and  understood  to 
the  rest;  as,  "John  can  read,  write,  and  spell."  When  different 
tenses  are  connected,  the  auxiliary  must  always  be  expressed;  as, 
♦*  He  has  come,  but  he  will  not  stay." 

Rule  2. — Certain  words  in  the  antecedent  member  of  a  sentetice, 
squire  correspoiidinr/  connectives  in  the  subsequent  one:  thus, 
1.  In  clauses  or  words  simply  connected — 

Both         requires  and;  as,  '■'■Both  he  and  1  came." 

Either      or;  as,  ^^ Either  he  or  I  will  come." 

Neither    nor;  as,  "iV(??7/A<?r  he  Mor  I  came." 

Whether   or ;  as,  "  Tl'7ye///cr  he  or  I  caiyc." 


Of  XHB 


126         INTRODUCTION   TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAM3IAR. 

Tliough    yet ;  as,  '■''Tliough  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust 

•  in  him." 

Not  only out  also  ;  as,  '■'■Not  only  he,  but  also  his  bro- 
ther goes." 
2.  In  clauses  connected  so  as  to  imply  comparison — 

The  comparative  degree  requires  than ,  as,  "  He  is  taller  than  I 

am," 
Other  requires  than ;  as,  "It  is  no  other  than  he." 

Mse     than;  as,  "  What  e/se  do  you  expect  <Art»  this?" 

As        —  as  (expressing  equality) ;  as,  "  He  is  as  tall  as 

I  am." 

As        so  (expressing  eqicality) ;  as,  *'-4s  thy  day  is,  so 

shall  thy  strength  be." 
So         -  as  (with  a  negative,  expressing  inequality)  ;  as, 

"He  is  not  so  learned  as  his  brother." 
So        -  -  that  (expressing  consequence) ;    as,  "  He   is   so 

y/Qok^that  he  cannot  walk." 

Such    a«   (expressing   similanty) ;   as,  "He,   or  such 

as  he." 
Note. — As  and  so,  in  the  members  of  a  comparison,  are  properly 
adverbs. 

EXPLANATION.— This  Rule  means,  that  when  any  of  the  corres- 
ponding terms  above,  stands  in  one  member  of  a  sentence,  the  other 
term  sliould  stand  in  the  other  member.  -After  "</iOM<jrA,"  "^e<"  is 
sometimes  understood. 

Rule  3. —  Wlien  a  subsequent  clause,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  is  conu 
mon  to  twd  different  but  connected  antecedent  clauses,  it  must  be  equally 
applicable  to  both;  as,  "That  work  always  has  been,  and  always  will 
be,  admired.^* 

EXPLANATION. — In  order  to  see  whether  sentences  are  correct 
according  to  this  Rule,  join  the  member  of  the  sentence  common  to 
the  two  clauses,  to  each  of  them  separately,  so  as  to  make  two  sen- 
tences. If  both  of  the  sentences  are  grammatically  correct,  and  ex- 
press the  sense  intended,  the  sentence  is  right — if  not,  it  is  wrong, 
and  must  be  corrected.  Thus,  for  example,  "  He  has  not,  and  he 
can  not,  be  censured,"  is  wrong,  because  if  you  add  the  member  "6* 
censured,''^  to  the  first  clause,  it  will  make  "  He  has  not  be  censured,'^ 
which  is  incorrect,  according  to  Sub-Rule  4  under  Rule  XVI.  This 
must  be  corrected  by  inserting  "been"  after  "has  net,"  so  as  to 
read,  "  He  has  not  been,  and  he  cannot  be,  censured."  The  different 
clauses  should  be  correctly  marked  by  punctuation. 

This  Rule  is  often  violated  in  sentences  in  which  there  are  two 
comparisons  of  a  different  nature  and  government.  Thus,  "He  was 
more   beloved,  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Charles."     Here,  "  ai 


CONJUNCTIONS.  127 

CharleSy"  is  applicable  to  the  clause  "  so  much  arlmired,^^  but  can  not 
be  connected  Avith  "  more  beloved.'^  In  such  sentences  as  this,  the 
proper  way  is,  to  complete  the  construction  of  the  first  member,  and 
leave  that  of  the  second  understood ;  as,  "He  was  more  beloved 
than  Charles,  but  not  so  much  admired  "  {as  Charles), 

EXERCISES. 

'  fRcTLK  1). — 1.  In  the  following,  point  out  the  connected  verbs. 
If  they  have  the  same  nominative,  put  them  in  the  same  mood  and 
tense.  If  they  must  be  in  different  moods  or  tenses,  repeat  the 
nominative ;  and  if  that  is  a  noun,  repeat  it  by  its  pronoun.  Point 
out  the  connected  nouns  or  pronouns,  and  put  them  in  the  same 
case. 

He  reads  and  wrote  well.  If  he  say  it,  and  does  it,  I  am 
content.  If  he  be  at  home,  and  is  well,  give  him  the  letter. 
My  father  has  read  the'  book,  and  will  return  it  to-morrow. 
James  and  me  ran  all  the  way.  Tfiat  is  a  small  matter 
between  you  and  I.  Him  and  I  are  great  friends,  and  so 
are  lilary  and  me.  Nobody  knows  that  better  than  her  and 
me. 

2.  "Write  short  sentences,  in  which  two  or  more  verbs  are  con- 
nected in  the  same  mood  and  tense,  and  notice  particularly  Obs.  4. 
Put  the  verbs  in  the  present — in  the  past — and  in  the  present-perfect^ 
&c.     Express  the  same  ideas,  with  the  verbs  in  the  passive  voice. 

3.  Write  sentences  containing  two  or  more  verbs  in  different 
moods  and  tenses,  paying  attention  to  Ogs.  1 ;  write  others,  con- 
tammg  two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  connected  in  the  same  case. 

(Rule  2). — 1.  Point  out  the  corresponding  terms  in  the  following 
sentences,  make  the  second  correspondent  to  the  first,  or  the  first  to 
the  second,  as  the  sense  requires.  Supply  the  correspondent  term 
where  improperly  omitted. 

He  will  not  do  it  himself,  nor  let  another  do  it  for  him. 
Though  he  slay  me,  so  will  I  trust  in  him.  That  is  so  far  . 
as  I  am  able  to  go.  This  book  is  equally  good  as  that  one. 
Nothing  is  so  bad  as  it  can  not  be  worse.  He  was  not  only 
diligent,  but  successful  in  his  studies.  It  is  neither  cold  or 
hot. 

2.  Write  correct  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  one  pair  of 
the  corresponding  terms  above,  and  state  what  they  express. 

8.  In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  comparative  degree, 
or  other  corrtispondent  terms,  and  make  the  one  correspond  to  tho 
other,  according  to  the  Rule. 

6* 


128         INTRODUCTION  TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

James  writes  better  as  I  do.  There  were  more  besides 
him  engaged  in  that  busine.-s.  No  more  but  two  can  play 
at  this  game.  The  days  are  longer  in  summer  besides  they 
are  in  winter.  Has  James  no  other  book  but  this  ?  This 
is  such  conduct  that  I  did  not  expect.  It  can  be  no  other 
but  he.  They  had  no  other  book  except  this  one.  I 
would  rather  read  as  write.  He  had  no  sooner  done  the 
mi^•hief  but  he  repented, 

2.  Write  sliort  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  a  word  in 
the  comparative  degree,  or  the  word  other  or  such  followed  by  the 
proper  correspondent  term. 

(Rule  3). — Make  trial  of  the  following  sentences,  as  directed  in 
the  explanation.  If  either  of  the  clauses,  when  joined  with  the  mem- 
ber of  the  sentence  common  to  both,  makes  a  grammatical  error, 
point  it  out  and  correct  it.^ 

He  always  has,  and  he  always  will,  be  punctual.  They 
might,  and  probably  were,  good.  James  is  taller,  but  not 
60  strong  as  his  brother.  His  book  is  not  so  good,  though 
larger  than  I  expected.  This  house  is  largei*,  but  not  so 
convenient  as  that  one.  I  ever  have,  and  I  ever  will  say 
so.  "He  depends  and  contides  in  me,"  is  as  correct  as, 
"He  conlides  and  depends  upon  me."  I  am  older,  but  not 
FO  feeble  as  Thomas.  Warm  weather  is  ])l<'asaiU,  but  not 
fo  bracing  as  cold.  Iron  is  more  useful,  but  not  so  valu- 
able as, gold  or  silver. 


licsson  71. — Interjections. 

Rule  XX. — Interjections  have  no  grammafr 
ical  connection  with  the  other  words  in  a  sen- 
tence. 

After  interjections,  pronouns  of  the  first  person  arc  commonly  in 
the  objective  case ;  those  of  the  second,  in  the  nominative ;  as,  ''Ah 
me  " — "  0  thou !  "  In  neither,  however,  does  the  case  depend  on 
the  interjection.  In  the  objective,  there  is  an  omission  of  the  govern- 
ing word ;  as,  "Ah  (pity)  me !  "  In  the  nominative,  they  are  in  the 
nominative  independent,  denoting  the  person  addressed. 


g::neral  rule.  129 

Lesson  79. —  General  Rule. 

In  every  sentence,  the  words  employed,  and 
the  order  in  lohlch  they  are  arramjed,  should 
he  such  as  clearly  and  properly  to  express  the 
idea  intended ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  cdl  the 
parts  of  the  sentence  shoidd  correspond,  and  a 
regular  and  dep)endent  construction  he  observed 
throughout. 

Sec  Analytical  and  Practical  Grammar,  973  to  976. 

EXPLANATION. — This  may  be  regarded  as  a  general  rule,  appli- 
cable to  every  case,  and  therefore  comprehending  all  the  preceding. 
Though  these  embrace  almost  every  thing  belonging  to  the  proper 
construction  of  sentences,  yet  there  will  sometimes  occur,  instances 
of  impropriety  in  the  use,  and  arrangement,  and  connection  of  words, 
for  the  avoiding  or  correcting  of  which,  no  very  specific  rules  can  be 
given. 

Among  the  evils  to  be  guarded  against  under  this  Rule,  are  the 
following, — 

1.  The  use  of  words  which  do  hot  correctly  or  properly  convey 

the  idea  intended,  or  which  convey  another  with  equal  pro- 
priety. 

2.  The  arrangement  of  words  or  clauses  in  such  a  way  that  their 

relation  to  other  words  and  clauses  is  doubtful,  or  difficult  to 
be  perceived. 

3.  The  separating  of  adjuncts  from  their  principals,  and  placing 

them  so  that  they  may  be  joined  to  words  to  which  they  do 
not  belong. 

4.  The  separating  of  relative  clauses  improperly  from  their  ante- 

cedents. 

6.  Using  injudiciously,  or  too  frequently,  the  third  personal  or 
possessive  pronoun,  especially  in  indirect  discourse. 

EXERCISES. 

EXPLANATION. — The  following  sentences  are  not  grammatically 
hicorrect,  but  from  some  of  the  causes  mentioned  above,  are  ob- 
jcure,  inelegant,  ambiguous,  or  unintelligible.  Point  out  the  impro- 
priety, correct  it,  and  give  a  reason  for  the  correction.  ^ 

(1 )  The  Greeks,  fearing  to  be  surrounded  on  all  sides, 
R^heeled  about,  and  halted  with  the  river  on  their  back. 


130         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

(2)  Parmenio  had  served,  with  great  fidelity,  Philip,  the 
father  of  Alexander,  as  well  as  himself,  for  whom  he  first 
opened  the  way  into  Asia.  (3)  Lost,  a  new  umbrella  be- 
longing to  a  gentleman  with  a  curiously  carved  ivory  head. 
(4)  Claudius  was  canonized  among  the  gods,  who  scarcely 
deserved  the  name  of  man.  (5)  A  farmer  went  to  a  law- 
i^er  and  told  him  that  his  bull  had  gored  his  ox. 


Lesson  73. — Ellipsis, 

Rule  1. — A7i  ElUiJsis.  or  omission  of  words^ 
is  admissible,  when  they  can  he  supplied  hy  the 
Tiiind  loith  such  certainty  and  readiness  as  not 
to  obscure  the  sense.     Thus, 

Instead  of  saying,  *'  He  was  a  learned  man,  and  he  was  a  wise  man, 
and  he  was  a  good  man ;"  we  say,  "  He  was  a  learned,  wise,  and 
good  man." 

EXPLANATION. — There  Is  a, constant  tendency  among  men,  to 
express  their  ideas  in  the  fewest  words  possible.  Whenever,  there- 
fore, a  word  can  be  spared  from  a  sentence  without  obscuring  its 
meaning,  that  word  is  often  left  out.  This  is  called  ellipffis.  Thus, 
instead  of  the  full  form  of  the  sentence,  as  follows,  "  1  rise  at  six 
hours  of  the  clock  in  the  morning,  I  breakfast  at  seven  hours  of  the 
clock  in  the  morning,  I  go  to  school  at  nine  hours  of  the  clock,  and 
study  till  twelve  hours  of  the  clock,"  we  can  say,  (and  be  equally 
well  understood),  "  I  rise  at  six,  breakfast  at  seven,  go  to  sciiool  at 
nine,  and  study  till  twelve."  This  is  the  origin  of  abbreviated  sen- 
tences ;  and  in  order  to  parse  such,  or  to  understand  their  grammat- 
ical coustruction,  the  words  left  out  must  be  supplied. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  In  the  following  sentences,  leave  out  such  words  as  may  be 
omitted  without  obscuring  the  sense. 

He  had  an  affectionate  father  and  an  affectionate  molher. 
You  may  read,  or  you  may  write,  as  you  please.  Will  you 
Btudy,  or  will  you  not  study  ?  I  have  been  at  London,  and 
I  have  seen  the  queen.  A  house  and  a  garden.  He  would 
neither  go,  nor  would  he  send. 


ELLIPSIS.  131 

2.  In  the  following  sentences,  supply  tire  words  left  out,  so  as  to 
abow  their  full  construction. 

It  is  six  o'clock  ;  we  may  study  till  seven.  We  have 
done  it,  but  you  have  not.  John  will  read,  and  Thomas 
write  I'vitters.  '  This  apple  is  laiger  than  that,  but  not  so 
fiweet.  Give  this  apple  to  James,  that  to  Robert,  and  the 
other  to  Mary.  I  have  heard  and  read  much  about  Wash- 
ington and  the  Revolution.  "Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon 
Gibeon ;  and  thou,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of  Ajalou." 


licsson  74. — Ellipsis  not  Allowable. 

EuLE  2. — An  ellipsis  is  not  alloivahle,  ichen 
it  would  ohsciire  the  sentence,  loeaken  its  force, 
or  he  attended  with  an  imi^roiyriety ;  for  ex- 
ample,— 

"We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have  seen," 
should  be,  "  We  speak  that  which  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which 
we  have  seen." 

EXPLANATION. — The  sense  will  always  be  obscured,  when  on 
accouut  ^f  improper  ellipsis,  the  construction  of  tlic  sentence  is  ren- 
dered doubtful,  or  is  not  clearly  and  readily  perceived.  When  a  sen- 
tence or  clause  is  emphatic,  ellipsis  is  less  allowable.  The  antecedent 
to  the  relative,  except  in  poetry,  is  seldom  omitted;  and  the  relative 
itself,  if  in  the  nominative  case,  never.  The  article  should  be  re* 
peated  when  a  different  form  of  it  is  requii'ed;  as,  "-4  horse  and  a7i 
ass." 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  sentences,  point  out  the  improper  ellipsis.  Show 
why  it  is  improper,  and  correct  ic. 

Cicero  made  oration?;,  both  on  public  and  private  occa- 
sions. He  is  the  most  diligent  scholar  I  ever  knew.  Thou 
hast  that  is  thine.  Thine  the  kingdom,  the  power,  and  the 
glory.  Depart  in  peace,  be  ye  warmed,  clotlied,  and  filled. 
I  gladly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me.  That  is  the  best 
can  be  said  of  him.  He  has  a  house  and  orchard.  We 
must  all  go  the  way  we  shall  not  return. 


132         INTRODUCTION    TO    ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 


IJesson  75. — Model  of  Syntactical  Parsing. 

In  syntactical  parsing,  the  pupil  is  required,  besides  parsing  the 
\vord  etymologicaily,  [See  Lesson  o(j],  to  state  its  relation  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence,  and  the  rules  by  -which  these  relations  are 
governed.  To  illustrate  this  more  clearly,  the  same  sentence  pai'sed 
etyniologically,  Lesson  37,  is  here  passed  syntactically. 

"Give  instruction  to  a  wise  man,  and  lie  will  be  yet 

wiser." 

**  Give,"  is  a  verb,  transitive,  irregular ;  give,  gave,  given ;  in  the 
imperative,  active,  second  person,  singular,  and  agrees  with 
its  nominative  thou^  understood.  Rule  VIIL  "A  verb 
agrees,"  &c. 

■"Instruction,"  is  a  noun,  neuter,  in  the  objective  singular,  governed 
by  give.     Rule  X.     "  A  transitive  verb,"  &c. 

"  To,"  is  a  preposition,  and  expresses  the  relation  between  give  and 
'  man^  as  its  remote  object. 

**  A,"  is  an  article,  indefinite,  belongs  to  wiaw,  and  shows  it  to  be 
used  indefinitely.    Rule  IIL     "The  article  a  or  an  is  put,"  &c. 

"Wise,"  is  an  adjective,  compared,  wise,  wiser,  vnsest ;  and  ex- 
presses a  quality  of  man.  Rule  IL  "  An  adjective  or  parti- 
ciple," &c. 

"Man,"  is  a  noun,  masculine,  in  the  objective  singular,  governed  by 
to.     Rule  XL     "A  preposition  governs,"  A:c. 

*'And,"  is  a  conjunction,  copulative,  and  connects  the  two  clauses. 
Rule  XIX.     "  Conjunctions  connect,"  &c. 

**  He,"  is  a  third  personal  pronoun,  masculine,  in  the  nominative,  sin- 
gular ;  stands  instead  of  man,  with  which  it  agrees.  Rule  IV. 
"Pronouns  agree,"  &c.,  and  is  the  subject  or  nominative  of 
mil  he.     Rule  YI.     "  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb,"  &c. 

*"Will  be,"  is  a  verb,  intransitive,  irregular;  am,  was,  been;  in  the 
future,  indicative ;  third  person,  singular ;  and  affirms  of  its 
subject  he,  with  which  it  agrees^.  Rule  VIIL  "A  verb 
agrees,"  &c. 

**  Yet,"  is  an  adverb,  modifying  wiser.  Rule  XVIII.  "  Adverbs 
modify,"  &c. 

*•  Wiser,"  is  an  adjective,  comparative  degree;  wise,  wiser,  wisest; 
and  belongs  to  man,  or  is  predicated  of  Ae.  Rule  II.  "  Ac 
adjective  or  participle,"  &c. 


PROMISCUOUS    EXERCISESo  133 

Questions  similar  to  those  suggested  at  the  close  of~L~KSSox  37,' 
may  be  proper  licre  also. 

For  Excreisos  in  Syntactical  Parsing,  the  pupil  may  now  return  to 
Lesson  .38,  or  take  any  plain  passage  in  the  reading*  les.sons  of  the 
SpeHing  13ook  ;  or  the  orduiary  reading  booics  used  in  the  school, 
may  be  used  fur  this  purpose,  as  the  teacher  may  direct. 


liesson  76. — Promiscvous  Exercises  on  the  Rules 
of  Syntax. 

In  order  to  correct  the  following  Exercises,  examine  each  sentence 
carefully,  and  see  wherein  it  is  wrong.  See,  first,  whether  words 
that  should  agree,  do  so — the  verb  with  its  nominative — the  nmneral 
adjective  with  its  noun — the  pronoun  personal  and  relative,  with  its 
substantive ;  secondly,  whether  nouns  and  pronouns  are  in  the 
case  which  the  word  governing  them  requires ;  and  lastly,  whether 
the  words  are  arranged  in  the  order  which  the  Rules  require.  Hav- 
ing found  the  error,  correct  it,  and  give  the  Rule  for  the  correction. 
These  Exercises,  when  corrected,  or  in  the  time  of  correcting,  may 
be  used  as  Exercises  in, Syntactical  parsing. 

1.  John  writes  beautiful.  I  shall  never  do  so  no  more. 
The  train  of  our  ideas  are  often  interrupted.  Was  jou 
present  at  last  meeting  ?  He  need  not  be  in  so  much  haste. 
He  dare  not  act  otherwise  than  he  does.  Him  who  they 
seek  is  in  the  house.  George  or  I  is  the  person.  They  or 
he  is  much  to  be  blamed.  The  troop  consist  of  fifty  men. 
Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present.  That  pillar  is 
sixty  foot  high.  His  conduct  evinced  the  most  extreme 
vanity.     The  trees  are  remarkable  tall. 

2.  He  acted  bolder  than  was  expected.  This  is  he  who 
I  gave  the  book  to.  Eliza  always  appears  amiably.  Who 
do  you  lodge  with  now  ?  He  was  born  at  London,  but  he 
died  in  Bath.  If  he  be  sincere,  I  am  satisfied.  Her  father 
and  her  were  at  church.  The  master  requested  him  and  I 
to  read  more  distinctly.  It  is  no  more  but  his  due.  Flat- 
terers flatter  as  long,  and  no  longer  than  they  have  expec- 
tations of  gain.  John  told  the  same  stoiy  as  you  told. 
This  is  the  largest  tree  which  I  have  ever  seen. 

3.  Let  he  and  I  read  the  next  chapter.  She  is  free  of 
pain.  Those  sort  of  dealings  are  unjust.  David  the  son  of 
Jesse,  was  the  youngest  of  his  brothers.     You  was  very 


^34         INTRODUCTION    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR. 

kind  to  him,  he  said.  Well,  says  I,  what  does  thou  thin^ 
of  him  now  ?  James  is  one  of  those  boys  that  was  kept  in 
at  school,  for  bad  behavior.  Thou,  James,  will  deny  the 
deed.  Neither  good  nor  evil  come  of  themselves.  We 
need  not  to  be  afraid.     It  is  all  fell  down. 

4.  He  expected  to  have  gained  more  by  the  bargain. 
You  should  drink  plenty  of  goat  milk.  It  was  him  who 
spoke  first.  Do  you  like  ass  milk  ?  Is  it  me  that  you 
mean?  Who  did  you  buy  your  grammar  from?  If  one 
takes  a  wrong  method  at  first  setting  out,  it  will  lead  them 
astray.  Neither  man  nor  woman  were  present.  I  am  more 
taller  than  you.  She  is  the  same  lady  who  sang  so  sweetly. 
After  the  most  straitest  sect  of  our  religion,  I  lived  a  Phari- 
see. Is  not  thy  wickedness  great  ?  and  thine  iniquities 
infinite  ?     There  is  six  that  studies  grammar. 


liesson  77. — Punduation, 

±*IINCTUATI0N  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composition  Into 
sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by  points  or  stops. 

The  design  of  these  points  is  to  show  the  meaning  more  clearly, 
and  also  to  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  pauses  and  inflections  required  in 
reading. 

The  principal  marks  used  for  these  purposes  are  the  following: — 

The  comma  ( ,  )  the  semicolon  ( ;  )  the  colon  ( :  the  period  or  full 
stop  ( ,  )  the  note  of  interrogation  (?)  the  note  of  exclamation  ( 1 ) 
the  parenthesis  (  )  and  the  dash  (-^). 

No  very  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  length  of  thy  pauses 
indicated  by  these  marks.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  comma 
represents  the  shortest  pause ;  the  semicolon,  a  pause  double  that  of 
the  comma;  a  colon,  a  pause  doyble  that  of  the  semicolon:  and  » 
period,  a  pause  double  that  of  the  colon. 

COMMA. 

The  comma  usually  separates  those  parts  of  a  sentence  whicli, 
though  very  closely  connected  in  sense  and  construction,  require  a 
pause  between  them. 

1.  In  short  simple  sentences,  the  comma  is  not  used ;  as,  "  Hope 
is  necessary  in  every  condition  of  life." 

2.  When  the  logical  subject  of  a  verb  is  long,  a  comma  is  usually 
inserted  before  the  verb ;  as,  '*  A  steady  and  undivided  attention  to 
one  subject,  is  a  sure  mark  of  a  superior  mind." 

3.  A  comma  is  generally  used  between  the  clauses  of  a  compound 


PUNCTUATION.  135 

Bentence  ;  as,  "  Crafty  men  contemn  studies,  simple  men  admire  tbem, 
and  wise  men  use  them." 

4.  Two  words  of  the  same  class  connected  by  a  conjunction  have 
no  comma  between  them ;  as,  "  The  earth  and  the  moon  are  planets." 
"  He  is  a  wise  and  good  man."  Wiieii  the  conjunciion  is  not 
expressed,  a  comma  is  inserted  ;  as,  "  He  is  a  plain,  honest  man." 

5.  More  than  two  words  of  the  same  class  coimected  by  conjunc- 
tions expiessed  or  understood,  have  a  comma  afiercach;  as,  ''Poetry, 
music,  and  painting,  are  fine  arts."  But  when  the  words  connected 
are  adjectives,  the  last  should  have  no  comma ;  as,  "  He  was  a  brave, 
wise  and  prudent  man." 

6.  Nouns  in  apposition  are  usually  separated  by  a  comma;  as, 
"  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Grentiles."  But  a  single  noun  in  apposition 
is  not  so  separated  ;  as,  **  Paul  the  apostle." 

7.  The  nominative  independent  and  the  nominative  absolute  with 
the  clauses  depending  upon  them,  have  a  comma  after  them;  as,  "I 
am,  Sir,  your  obedient  servant."  "  The  time  of  youth  being  precious, 
it  should  be  improved." 

8.  A  comma  is  generally  placed  after  an  adverb  or  adverbial  phrase 
at  the  commencement  of  a  sentence  ;  as,  "  First,  Secondly,  In  general, 
Indeed,". 

9.  When  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  must  be  inserted ;  as, 
Reading  makes  a  full  man ;  conversation,  a  ready  man  ;  and  writing, 
an  exact  man."    See  Analy.  &  Prac.  Grammar  989-1006.  . 

SEMICOLON.      • 

The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  sentence,  which 
are  less  closely  connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a 
comma. 

The  parts  of  a  sentence  separated  by  a  semicolon  should  contain  in 
themselves  a  complete  and  independent  proposition,  but  still  having 
a  connection  with  the  other  parts ;  as,  "  Straws  swim  after  the  sui" 
face;  but  pearls  Ue  at  the  bottom."   A.  &  P.  Gr.  1007-1012. 

COLON. 

The  colon  is  used  io  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more  parts,  less 
connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  but  not  so 
independent  as  Xo  require  a  period  ;  as,  "  Study  to  acquire  the  habit 
of  thinking :  no  study  is  more  important."  A.  &  P.  Gr.  1013-1017. 

PERIOD. 

The  period  is  used  when  a  sentence  is  complete,  with  respect  to 
the  cppstruction  and  the  sense  intended ;  as,  "  God  made  all  things." 
"  Have  charity  towards  all  men." 

A  period  must  be  ised  at  the  end  of  all  books,  ohaplers,  sections, 
Ac,  also  after  all  abbreviations ;  as,  A.  D.,  M.  A.,  Art.  11,,  Obs.  3. 
J.  Smith,  &c. 

Sucl:  expressions,  however,  .as,  lat,  2nd,  S's,  8vo,  &c.,  being  do* 
strictly  abbreviations,  do  not  require  a  period  after  them. 


^ 


136  INTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL    GRAirMAR. 


NOTE  OF  INTERROGATION". 

The  note  of  interrop^ation  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  sontnnoe  in 
which  a  direct  question  is  a  ked ;  as,  "  What  have  you  done  ?" 

NOTE  OF  EXCLAMATION. 

The  note  of  exclamation  is  used  after  expressions  of  emotion  o* 
fiassion,  and  after  solemn  invocations;  as,  "Hail!  holy  light  I" 
*'  Offspring  of  heaven,  first-born  I"     "  Oh  1  that  he  would  come  1" 

THE  DASH. 

The  dash  is  used  where  a  sentence  is  left  unfinished:  also  lo 
denote  a  significant  pause — an  unexpected  turn  in  the  sentiment-^r 
that  the  first  clause  is  common  to  all  the  rest;  as  in  this  definition. 

OTHER  CHARACTERS  USED  IN  WRITING. 

Parenthesis  (  )  includes  a  clause  inserted  in  the  body  of  a  sentence 
but  which  may  bo  omitted  without  injuring  the  construction  of  the 
sentence;  as,  "Know  ye  not,  brethren,  (for  I  speak  to  them  that 
know  the  law,)  how  that  the  law  hath  dominion  over  a  man  as  long 
as  he  liveth." 

Brackets  [  ]  are  used  to  enclose  a  word  or  phrase,  explaining, 
correcting,  or  supplying  a  deficiency  in  a  sentence  ;  as,  "James  told 
John  tliat  he  [John]  was  to  study." 

The  Apostrophe  ( ' )  is  used  when  a  letter  or  letters  are  omitted ; 
as,  e'er  for  ever,  thd'  for  though^  or  to  mark  the  possessive  case. 

Quotation  marks  (  "  " )  enclose  words  and  passages  quoted  from 
another. 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  connect  compound  words ;  as,  lap-dog, 
horse-jockey.  Also  at  tlie  end  of  a  line  to  show  that  one  or  more 
syllables  of  the  last  word  are  carried  to  the  ne.xt  line. 

Section  (  §  )  is  used  to  divide  a  discourse  or  chapter  into  portions. 

Paragraph  (  ^  )  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject. 

The  Brace  {-^ — )  is  used  to  connect  words  which  have  one  common 
term,  or  three  lines  in  poetry  having  tlie  same  rhyme  called  a  triplet. 

Ellipsis  ( )  or  (  *** )  is  used  when  some  letters  are  omitted;  as, 

K g  or  K**g  for  King. 

The  Oaret  (  a)  is  used  to  show  that  some  word  is  either  omitted  or 
interlined. 

The  Index  j^W)  is  used  to  point  out  anything  that  requires 
special  attention. 

The  vowel  marks  are:  the  Biceresis  (••)  on  the  last  of  two  con- 
current vowels  shoving  that  they  are  not  to  be  pronounced  as  a 
diphtiiong :  the  Acute  accent  ( ' ) :  the  Grave  (' ) :  the  long  sound  (~) : 
tlie  short  sound  ( '' ). 

Tiio  marks  of  reference  are  :  the  Asterisk  ( *  ) ;  the  Bagger  (  f  ) ; 
thft  Bouhle  Bagger  ( ;}: ) ;  the  Parallel  ( | )  sometimes  also  the  §,  \ 
ftlw  small  letters  or  figures  referring  to  notes  at  the  loot  of  the  page. 


CAPITALS.  13  V 

TieSSOII    78. —  Ca2ntals. 
an.  composition,  the  following  words  begin  with  capital  letters : 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  ar^v  other 
piece  of  writing;  for  examples,  see  the  first  word  of  ihis  book,  it3 
chapters,  &c. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period;  also  after  a  note  of  interrogation, 
or  exclamation,  when  the  sentence  before,  and  the  one  after  it,  aro 
independent  of  each  other;  as,  "Love  is  stronger  than  death,"  "What 
did  he  to  thee?  Mow  opened  he  thine  eyes?"  "Gone  to  be  mar- 
-.'ied  !     Gone  to  swear  a  peace  I     Gone  to  be  friends  I" 

3.  Proper  names,  that  is,  names  of  persotis.  places,  ships,  &a ;  aa, 
George  Washington,  General  Grant,  Judge  Story,  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
America.     The  Ohio.     Sheldon  &  Co.,  Broadway,  New  York. 

4.  The  pronoun  /,  and  the  inlerjectiou  0,  are  written  in  caoitals  ' 
as,  0  my  Country  1  how  I  love  thee  ! 

5    The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry ;  as, 

Again  the  Lord  of  life  and  light 

Awakes  the  kindling  rayl 
Unseals  the  eyelids  of  the  morn, 

And  pours  unceasing  day. 

6.  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  God,  Most  High,  the  Almigh- 
ty, the  Supreme  Being,  &c. 

7.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ;  as,  Grecian, 
"Roman,  English,  &c. 

8.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quotation  would 
form  a  complete  sentence  by  itself;  as.  Always  remember  the  maxim, 
"Know  thyself;"  Solomon  says,  "Pride  goeth  before  destruction." 
But  wlic-n  the  quotaiipn  is  indirect,  so  as  not  to  form  a  complete  sen 
tence  by  itself,  the  first  word  does  not  begin  with  a  capital;  as,  Solo- 
mon says  that  pride  goeth  before  destruction. 

9.  Common  nouns,  when  personified;  as,  "Come,  gentle  Spring.'^ 

10.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books;  as, 
"Euclid's  Elements  of  Geometry  ;"  "Goldsmith's  Deserted  Village." 

Note,  Other  words  besides  the  preceding  may  begin  w'ith  capitals, 
«vhen  they  are  remarkably  emphatic,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the 
composition.    See  An.  &  Pr.  Gr.  77. 

EXERCISES. 

In  the  following  exercises  correct  the  mistaKes,  and  give  a  reason 
for  the  correction ;  also  punctuate  properly. 

in  the  beginning  god  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth 
dear  sir  your  note  is  received  sorry  am  i  to  be  told  of  you^ 
sickness 


138  rNTRODUCTION   TO   ANALYTICAL    (iEAMMAE. 

'—the  boston  courier  makes  fun  of  a  learned  disquisition  in 
the  Philadelphia  press — george  Washington  was  the  greatest 
general  of  his- age — yonder  comes  the  powerful  king  .of  day 

haste  thee  nymph  and  bring  with  thee 

mirth  and  youthful  jollity 
hail  holy  light  offspring  of  heaven — holy  holy  holy  lord 
god  of  sabaoth — macauleys  history  of  england — prescotts 
conquest  of  mexico — dickens  household  wordvS — the  evan- 
gelical monthly — the  edinburgh  review  —  remember  the 
saying  that  is  written  death  is  swallowed  up  in  victory — 
the  greci^an  sages  were  more  learned  than  the  roman — the 
erie  canal  passes  through  the  state  of  new  york — be  it  en- 
acted by  the  senate  and  house  of  representatives  that  &c — 
6  my  country  how  i  weep  for  thee — unto  thee  do  i  lift  up 
mine  eyes  o  thou  that  dwellest  in  the  heavens — lessons  at 
home  in  spelling  and  reading — part  1  price  8  cents — the 
resources  of  California  comprising  agriculture  mining  &c 


PART   lY.— PROSODY. 

liesson  70. — Prosody. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts ;  Elocution  and 
Versification. 

I.    ELOCUTION.       » 

Elocution  is  correct  pronoiinciation,  or  the 
proper  ma^nagement  of  the  voice  in  reading  or 
speaking,  and  comprises  Accent,  Quantity,  Env 
'phasis,  Pause  and  Tone. 

Accent  is  a  stress  of  the  voice  placed  upon  a  particular  syllable  in 
pronouncing  a  word  of  two  or  more  syllables.  Thus,  in  the  word 
fearraony.  tlie  stress  is  on  the  first  syllable.  In  "  uuder^aA;e"  it  is  on 
.he  last. 

When  expressed  at  all,  this  stress  of  voice  is  indicated  by  the 
mark  ( ' )  placed  ou  the  accented  syllable. 

Wo'rds  of  more  than  two  syllables  generally  have  2k  primary  and 
a  secondary  acctnt;  as,  communication,  domineer. 

To  know  the  place  of  the  primary  accent  is  indispensable  to  correct 
pronunciation.  A  good  dictionary  is  the  be^t  guide  to  the  propej 
nccent  of  a  woj  d. 


IBOSODY.  13P 

1.  Words  from  English  roots  commoniy  keep  the  accent  throufrhout 
mi  the  root;  as,  love,  loveliness,  lovelilv,  beloved,  lovesick.  This  ia 
not  so,  however,  with  words  from  foreign  roots ;  as,  harmony, 
harmonious. 

2.  In  dissyllables  which  are  at  once  nouns  or  adjectives,  and  verbs; 
the  noun  or  adjective  generally  has  the  accent  on  the  first  and  thfl 
verb  on  the  last  syllable ;  as, 

Noun  or  adjective.  Y&rh. 

contract  contract 

present  present  ^ 

presage  presiige 

perfume  perfume 

absent  ,    absent 

S.  In  dissyllables  formed  by  afiBxing  a  termination,  the  first  syllable 
\r  commonly  accented  ;  as,  childish,  kingdom,  toilsome. 

4.  Dissyllables  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  radical  word 
generally  have  the  accent  on  the  last  syllable;  as,  to  retain,  to 
bivseem,  to  bestow. 

II.    VERSIFICATION. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain 
nr.mber  of  long  and  short  syllables  according 
to  certain  rules.  Composition  so  arranged  is 
called  Verse  of  Poetry. 

Vkrse  is  of  two  kinds ;  Jiliipne  and  Blank  verse.  Rhyme  is  a 
similarity  of  sound  in  the  last  syllables  of  two  or  more  lines  arranged 
in  a  certain  order.  Poetry  consisting  of  such  lines,  is  sometimes 
called  Rhyme.     Blank-VEUSK  is  poetry  without  rhyme. 

Every  verse  or  line  of  poetry  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  parts 
called  Feet.  The  arrangement  of  these  feet  in  a  line  according  to  the 
accent,  is  called  3fcfre  ;  and  the  dividing  of  a  line  into  its  component 
feet  is  called  Scanning, 

All  feet  used  in  poetry,  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ;  four  of  two 
syllables,  and  four  of  three  syllables;  the  long  syllable  being  marked 
by  a  straight  line  ( — )  and  the  short,  by  a  curve,  (--^)  as  follows : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISSYLLABLE, 

A  Trochee  —  ^-^  A  Dactyl    —  w  v_^ 

An  Iambus  --'  —  An  Amphibrach  ^— '  —  --^ 

A  Spondee An  Anapaits  -^-^^-^^ — 

A  Pyrrhic    v_^  >-'  A  Tribrach      n^  ^  n_x 

In  English,  accented  syllables  are  long,  unaccented  are  short. 

The  Metres  in  most  common  use,  are  the  Iambic^  Trochaic  and 
Anapaestic* 


140  C03IP0SITI0X. 

Iambic  Mp:tre  is  adapted  to  grave  and  serious  subjects;  it  has  tlio 
second,  fourth,  and  otlier  even  syllables,  accented  or  long;  and  the 
first,  third,  and  other  uneven  syllables,  unaccented,  or  short.  01  this 
verse  there  are  various  kinds,  sonic  having  two  feet,some  three,  some 
four,  some  five.  This  last  is  called  heroic  measure,  and  is  the  same 
that  is  used  by  Milton,  Youug,  Thomson,  PoUok,  &c. 

When  the  last  fine  of  a  stanza  is  extended  to  six  feet,  it  is  called 
Alexaiidrine. 

I  Trochaic  Metre  is  quick  and  lively,  and  adapted  to  gay  and 
cheerful  composition.  It  comprises  verses  of  one  and  a  half,  two, 
three,  four,  five,  and  sometimes  six  feet ;  sometimes  followed  by  an 
additional  syllable. 

ANApi:sTic  Metre  consists  of  lines  of  two,  three,  four  Metres  or 
Anapaests,  with  sometimes  an  additional  syllable. 


liessoii  80. —  Composition, 

Composition  is  the  putting  of  words  together  in  sentences,  for  the 
purpose  of  expressing  our  ideas  in  writing,  in  the  best  manner,  ac- 
cording to  the  Rules  of  Grammar,  and  the  best  usages  of  the  lan- 
guage. 

Almost  all  the  Exercises  in  the  preceding  Grammar,  and  especially 
those  under  the  Rules  of  Syntax,  have  been  framed  with  a  view  to 
exercise  the  pupil  in  the  elementary  parts  of  compo.sition,  by  leading 
him  to  vary  his  ideas,  and  to  express  the  same  idea  in  diiferent  forms; 
to  detect  and  correct  errors  which  often  occur  in  the  construction  of 
sentences;  and  so  to  put  him  on  his  guard  against  similar  errors; 
and  also  to  form  correct  sentences  for  himself,  accordmg  to  the  par- 
ticular directions  laid  down  under  the  various  Rules.  In  committing 
his  own  ideas  to  writiiig,  in  the  form  of  compositions,  then,  all  he  has 
to  do,  is  to  endeavor  to  select  the  proper  words,  and  to  combine  these 
so  as  to  express  his  meaning  correctly,  according  to  the  Rules  with 
which  he  is  now  supposed  to  be  famiUar.  The  few  following  hints 
may  be  useful. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  TO  YOUNG  COMPOSERS. 

1.  Spell  every  word  correctly.  Pay  proper  attention  to  the  use  of 
capitals ;  always  using  them  where  they  shoidd  be,  and  never  where 
Hiey  should  not  be.     [See  Lesson  78].* 

2.  Carefully  avoid  all  vulgar  expressions  and  cant  phrases,  and 
never  use  words  which  you  do  not  understand,  or  which  do  not  cor< 
Meetly  express  your  meaning. 

s.  At  the  end  of  the  line,  never  divide  a  word  of  one  syllable,  no 


IXTIIODUCTIOX    TO  ANALYTICAL    GRAMMAR.  141 

any  word  in  tlie  middle  of  a  syllable.  If  there  should  p.ot  be  room  af 
the  end  of  the  line  ior  the  whole  syllable,  do  uot  begin  it  at  all,  but 
carry  it  to  the  next  hne. 

4.  When  you  have  written  what  you  intended,  look  over  it  care- 
fully ;  see  if  you  can  improve  it  by  a  better  choice  of  words,  or  by  a 
better  arrangement  of  them,  so  as  to  express  your  meaning  more 
clearly  ;  and  mark  the  changes  proposed. 

I  5.  Copy  the  whole  over  in  as  neat,  distinct,  and  plain  a  manner  as 
you  can,  guarding  against  blots  and  erasures,  which  disfigure  any 
writing,  dotting  your  is,  crossing  your  t's,  and  pointing  the  whole  in 
the  best  manner  you  can,  so  that  any  person,  as  well  as  yourself,  may 
easily  read  and  undcrstaiid  it. 

6.  Try  to  make  every  new  composition  better  than  the  one  before 
it.  Never  write  carelessly,  and  though  it  may  be  a  little  difficult  at 
first,  a  little  practice  will  sooa  make  it  easy. 

EXERCISES  IN"  COMPOSITION. 

The  more  simple  exercises  in  composition  are,  for  young  beginners, 
so  much  the  better.  They  should  not  be  required  to  write  about  any 
thing  with  which  they  are  not  perfectly  familiar. 

1  The  following  is  a  very  simple  and  easy  exercise.  A  class  of 
pupils  may  be  directed  to  look  at  a  certain  picture  in  the  Spelling 
Book  or  Geography,  or  any  other  book  at  hand  ;  and  the  teacher  may 
excite  their  attention  by  asking  some  questions,  or  telhng  them  some- 
thing respecting  it,  and  then  direct  each  one,  either  in  his  seat  or  at 
home,  to  write  a  description  of  the  picture,  together  witii  any  ideas 
that  occur  to  him  on  the  subject.  This  method  will  furnish  an  end- 
less variety  of  easy  and  usctul  exercises. 

2.  From  pictures,  the  attention  may  be  turned  to  real  objects. 
The  class  may  now  be  directed  to  any  object  or  objects  within  tiieir 
view,  which  they  may  be  required  to  describe  and  give  their  ideas 
about,  as  before ;  for  example,  the  school-house  and  its  innnture — the 
business  of  the  day,  in  the  form  of  a  journal — the  principal  objects  in 
view  to  the  south  of  the  school-house — to  the  north — to  the  east — to 
the  west.  Each  may  be  directed  to  describe  his  own  house,  and  the 
leading  objects  in  view  from  it  in  different  directions,  or  any  object 
which  he  may  choose  to  select. 

3.  Another  class  of  easy  and  interesting  subjects  may  be  found  in 
describing  familiar  objects  in  natural  history — the  various  seasons  of 
the  year,  with  their  employments  and  amusements — the  various  ope- 
rations of  the  farmer,  and  different  mechanic  arts — narratives  of  any 
accidents,  or  striking  events  that  may  have  occurred. 

4.  Short  familiar  epistolary  correspondence,  real  or  imaginary 
One  pupil  may  be  directed  to  write  to  another  concerning  any  thing 
be  pleases.     A  post-office  might  be  set  up  in  the  school,  with  its  let' 


142  COMPOSITION. 

tcr-box,  to  be  opened  tit  stated  seasons,  and  its  contents  read  for  thd 
amusement  and  nistructiou  of  the  school.  This  exercise,  because 
vohnitary,  would  be  entered  into  with  spirit,  and  prove  of  great 
beiietit, 

5.  Themes  on  familiar  subjects  may  next  be  assigned,  such  as  the 
following: 

Pomt  out  the  evils  of  the  following  vices  and  improprieties,  and 
make  such  remarks  respecting  them  as  you  think  proper;  viz.,  Lying; 
Stealing,  Swearing,  Disobedience  to  Parents,  Sabbath-breaking,  Di.^-" 
contentment,  Intemperance,  111  nature.  Violent  passions,  Penurious- 
uess,  Idleness,  Cruelty  to  animals.  Bad  company,  &c. 

Pomt  out  the  benefits  arising  from  Truth,  Honesty,  Sobriety,  Love 
to  God,  Love  to  men,  Good  nature.  Industry,  Contentment,  Kindue.ss 
to  the  poor.  Keeping  good  company.  Proper  amu.sements,  &;c.,  and 
make  such  remarks  as  you  think  proper  respecting  them. 

In  all  cases  with  beginners,  it  is  better  to  require  them  to  give  their 
own  thoughts  on  familiar  subjects  with  which  they  are  acquainted, 
than  to  give  them  subjects  of  an  abstract  nature,  or  of  which  they 
can  not  be  supposed  to  have  much  knowledge.  In  the  former  case, 
they  will  be  likely  to  give  their  own  thoughts  in  their  own  way ;  in 
the  latter,  they  will  have  to  resort  to  books,  and  instead  of  giving 
tfieir  own  ideas,  will  be  apt  to  copy  the  writings  of  others,  without 
perhaps,  well  understanding  them. 

6.  When  the  compositions  are  prepared,  the  errors  in  Grammar 
should  be  pointed  out  and  explained ;  mistakes  in  orthography,  capi- 
tals, punctuation,  &c.,  corrected,  or  pointed  out  to  be  corrected,  and 
then  the  whole  copied,  in  a  correct  and  plain  manner,  into  a  book 
kept  for  that  purpose. 

.  Compositions  of  a  higher  order  than  those  which  have  been  sug- 
gested, would  be  above  the  years  and  acquirements  of  those  for 
whom  this  little  work  is  intended,  and  would  therefore  be  improper. 
Having  gone  through  these  Lessons,  pupils,  though  young,  will  be 
well  prepared  for  taking  up,  with  ease  and  advantage,  the  "  Analyti- 
cal and  Practical  Grammar  of  the  English  Language,"  and  for  going 
through  a  more  thorough  and  critical  course. 

[the  end.] 


OO^  Of  TH» 

UHITERSITT] 


.w:.^^^j|-^. 


YB  0166 


